Max Planck biography of scientific achievements and discoveries. Discoveries of M. Planck, N. Bohr, E. Rutherford, W. Pauli, E. Schrödinger and others. Smartphone and quantum physics

Nobel Prize in Physics, 1918

German physicist Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck was born in Kiel (which then belonged to Prussia), in the family of Johann Julius Wilhelm von Planck, professor of civil law, and Emma (nee Patzig) Planck. As a child, the boy learned to play the piano and organ, revealing extraordinary musical abilities. In 1867, the family moved to Munich, and there P. entered the Royal Maximilian Classical Gymnasium, where an excellent mathematics teacher first aroused his interest in the natural and exact sciences. After graduating from high school in 1874, he was going to study classical philology, tried his hand at musical composition, but then gave preference to physics.

For three years P. studied mathematics and physics at the University of Munich and a year at the University of Berlin. One of his professors in Munich, experimental physicist Philipp von Jolly, turned out to be a bad prophet when he advised young P. to choose another profession, since, according to him, there was nothing fundamentally new left in physics that could be discovered. This point of view, widespread at that time, arose under the influence of the extraordinary successes of scientists in the 19th century. have achieved in increasing our knowledge of physical and chemical processes.

While in Berlin, P. acquired a broader view of physics thanks to the publications of outstanding physicists Hermann von Helmholtz and Gustav Kirchhoff, as well as articles by Rudolf Clausius. Familiarity with their works contributed to the fact that P.'s scientific interests focused for a long time on thermodynamics - a field of physics in which, on the basis of a small number of fundamental laws, the phenomena of heat, mechanical energy and energy conversion are studied. P. received his academic degree as a doctor in 1879, having defended a dissertation at the University of Munich on the second law of thermodynamics, which states that no continuous self-sustaining process can transfer heat from a colder body to a warmer one.

The next year, P. wrote another work on thermodynamics, which brought him the position of junior assistant at the Faculty of Physics at the University of Munich. In 1885 he became an associate professor at the University of Kiel, which strengthened his independence, strengthened his financial position and provided more time for scientific research. P.'s work on thermodynamics and its applications to physical chemistry and electrochemistry earned him international recognition. In 1888, he became an associate professor at the University of Berlin and director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics (the post of director was created specifically for him). He became a full (full) professor in 1892.

Since 1896, P. became interested in measurements made at the State Institute of Physics and Technology in Berlin, as well as in the problems of thermal radiation of bodies. Any body containing heat emits electromagnetic radiation. If the body is hot enough, then this radiation becomes visible. As the temperature rises, the body first becomes red-hot, then orange-yellow, and finally white. Radiation emits a mixture of frequencies (in the visible range, the frequency of radiation corresponds to color). However, the radiation of a body depends not only on temperature, but also to some extent on surface characteristics such as color and structure.

Physicists have adopted an imaginary absolute black body as an ideal standard for measurement and theoretical research. By definition, a completely black body is a body that absorbs all radiation incident on it and does not reflect anything. The radiation emitted by a black body depends only on its temperature. Although such an ideal body does not exist, a closed shell with a small opening (for example, a properly constructed oven whose walls and contents are in equilibrium at the same temperature) can serve as an approximation.

One of the proofs of the black-body characteristics of such a shell comes down to the following. Radiation incident on the hole enters the cavity and, reflecting from the walls, is partially reflected and partially absorbed. Since the probability that the radiation will come out through the hole as a result of numerous reflections is very small, it is almost completely absorbed. The radiation originating in the cavity and emerging from the hole is generally considered to be equivalent to the radiation emitted by a hole-sized area on the surface of a black body at the temperature of the cavity and shell. Preparing his own research, P. read Kirchhoff's work on the properties of such a shell with a hole. An accurate quantitative description of the observed distribution of radiation energy in this case is called the black body problem.

As blackbody experiments have shown, a graph of energy (brightness) versus frequency or wavelength is a characteristic curve. At low frequencies (long wavelengths), it is pressed against the frequency axis, then at some intermediate frequency it reaches a maximum (a peak with a rounded top), and then at higher frequencies (short wavelengths) it decreases. As the temperature increases, the curve retains its shape, but shifts toward higher frequencies. Empirical relationships have been established between temperature and the frequency of the peak in the black body radiation curve (Wien's displacement law, named after Wilhelm Wien) and between temperature and the total radiated energy (Stefan–Boltzmann law, named after the Austrian physicists Joseph Stefan and Ludwig Boltzmann ), but no one was able to derive the black body radiation curve from the first principles known at the time.

Wien managed to obtain a semi-empirical formula that can be adjusted so that it describes the curve well at high frequencies, but incorrectly conveys its behavior at low frequencies. J. W. Strett (Lord Rayleigh) and the English physicist James Jeans applied the principle of equal distribution of energy among the frequencies of oscillators contained in the space of a black body, and came to another formula (the Rayleigh-Jeans formula). It reproduced the black body radiation curve well at low frequencies, but diverged from it at high frequencies.

P., under the influence of James Clerk Maxwell's theory of the electromagnetic nature of light (published in 1873 and confirmed experimentally by Heinrich Hertz in 1887), approached the black body problem from the point of view of the distribution of energy between elementary electrical oscillators, the physical form of which was not specified in any way. Although at first glance it may seem that the method he chose resembles the Rayleigh-Jeans conclusion, P. rejected some of the assumptions accepted by these scientists.

In 1900, after long and persistent attempts to create a theory that would satisfactorily explain the experimental data, P. managed to derive a formula that, as experimental physicists from the State Institute of Physics and Technology discovered, agreed with the measurement results with remarkable accuracy. Wien's and Stefan-Boltzmann's laws also followed from Planck's formula. However, to derive his formula, he had to introduce a radical concept that went against all established principles. The energy of Planck oscillators does not change continuously, as would follow from traditional physics, but can only take discrete values, increasing (or decreasing) in finite steps. Each energy step is equal to a certain constant (now called Planck's constant) multiplied by the frequency. Discrete portions of energy were subsequently called quanta. The hypothesis introduced by P. marked the birth of quantum theory, which accomplished a true revolution in physics. Classical physics, as opposed to modern physics, now means “physics before Planck.”

P. was by no means a revolutionary, and neither he himself nor other physicists were aware of the deep meaning of the concept of “quantum”. For P., the quantum was just a means that made it possible to derive a formula that gave satisfactory agreement with the radiation curve of an absolutely black body. He repeatedly tried to reach agreement within the classical tradition, but without success. At the same time, he noted with pleasure the first successes of quantum theory, which followed almost immediately. His new theory included, in addition to Planck's constant, other fundamental quantities, such as the speed of light and a number known as Boltzmann's constant. In 1901, based on experimental data on black body radiation, P. calculated the value of Boltzmann's constant and, using other known information, obtained Avogadro's number (the number of atoms in one mole of an element). Based on Avogadro's number, P. was able to find the electric charge of an electron with remarkable accuracy.

The position of quantum theory was strengthened in 1905, when Albert Einstein used the concept of a photon - a quantum of electromagnetic radiation - to explain the photoelectric effect (the emission of electrons from a metal surface illuminated by ultraviolet radiation). Einstein suggested that light has a dual nature: it can behave both as a wave (as all previous physics convinces us of) and as a particle (as evidenced by the photoelectric effect). In 1907, Einstein further strengthened the position of quantum theory by using the concept of quantum to explain the puzzling discrepancies between theoretical predictions and experimental measurements of the specific heat capacity of bodies - the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one unit of mass of a solid by one degree.

Another confirmation of the potential power of the innovation introduced by P. came in 1913 from Niels Bohr, who applied quantum theory to the structure of the atom. In Bohr's model, electrons in an atom could only be at certain energy levels determined by quantum limitations. The transition of electrons from one level to another is accompanied by the release of an energy difference in the form of a photon of radiation with a frequency equal to the photon energy divided by Planck's constant. Thus, a quantum explanation was obtained for the characteristic spectra of radiation emitted by excited atoms.

In 1919, P. was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1918 “in recognition of his services to the development of physics through the discovery of energy quanta.” As stated by A.G. Ekstrand, a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, at the award ceremony, “P.’s theory of radiation is the brightest of the guiding stars of modern physical research, and, as far as one can judge, it will still be a long time before the treasures that were obtained by his genius are exhausted.” . In the Nobel lecture given in 1920, P. summed up his work and admitted that “the introduction of quantum has not yet led to the creation of a true quantum theory.”

20s witnessed the development by Erwin Schrödinger, Werner Heisenberg, P.A.M. Dirac and others of quantum mechanics - equipped with the complex mathematical apparatus of quantum theory. P. did not like the new probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics, and, like Einstein, he tried to reconcile predictions based only on the principle of probability with classical ideas of causality. His aspirations were not destined to come true: the probabilistic approach survived.

P.'s contribution to modern physics is not limited to the discovery of the quantum and the constant that now bears his name. He was strongly impressed by Einstein's special theory of relativity, published in 1905. The full support provided by P. to the new theory greatly contributed to the acceptance of the special theory of relativity by physicists. Among his other achievements is his proposed derivation of the Fokker-Planck equation, which describes the behavior of a system of particles under the influence of small random impulses (Adrian Fokker is a Dutch physicist who improved the method first used by Einstein to describe Brownian motion - the chaotic zigzag movement of tiny particles suspended in a liquid ). In 1928, at the age of seventy, Planck entered into his mandatory formal retirement, but did not break ties with the Kaiser Wilhelm Society for Basic Sciences, of which he became president in 1930. And on the threshold of his eighth decade, he continued his research activities.

P.'s personal life was marked by tragedy. His first wife, née Maria Merck, whom he married in 1885 and who bore him two sons and two twin daughters, died in 1909. Two years later he married his niece Marga von Hesslin, with whom he he also had a son. P.'s eldest son died in the First World War, and in subsequent years both of his daughters died in childbirth. The second son from his first marriage was executed in 1944 for his participation in a failed plot against Hitler.

As a person of established views and religious beliefs, and simply as a fair person, P., after Hitler came to power in 1933, publicly spoke out in defense of Jewish scientists expelled from their posts and forced to emigrate. At a scientific conference he greeted Einstein, who was anathema by the Nazis. When P., as president of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society for Basic Sciences, paid an official visit to Hitler, he took this opportunity to try to stop the persecution of Jewish scientists. In response, Hitler launched into a tirade against Jews in general. Subsequently, P. became more reserved and remained silent, although the Nazis undoubtedly knew about his views.

As a patriot who loved his homeland, he could only pray that the German nation would regain its normal life. He continued to serve in various German learned societies in the hope of preserving at least some small part of German science and enlightenment from complete destruction. After his home and personal library were destroyed during an air raid on Berlin, P. and his wife tried to find refuge on the Rogetz estate near Magdeburg, where they found themselves between the retreating German troops and the advancing Allied forces. In the end, the Planck couple were discovered by American units and taken to the then safe state of Göttingen.

P. died in Göttingen on October 4, 1947, six months before his 90th birthday. Only his first and last name and the numerical value of Planck's constant are engraved on his tombstone.

Like Bohr and Einstein, P. was deeply interested in philosophical problems related to causality, ethics and free will, and spoke on these topics in print and before professional and lay audiences. Acting as a pastor (but without priesthood) in Berlin, P. was deeply convinced that science complements religion and teaches truthfulness and respect.

Throughout his life, P. carried with him the love of music that flared up in him in early childhood. An excellent pianist, he often played chamber works with his friend Einstein until he left Germany. P. was also a keen mountaineer and spent almost every holiday in the Alps.

In addition to the Nobel Prize, P. was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London (1928) and the Goethe Prize of Frankfurt am Main (1946). The German Physical Society named its highest award in honor of him, the Planck Medal, and P. himself was the first recipient of this honorary award. In honor of his 80th birthday, one of the minor planets was named Planckian, and after the end of the Second World War, the Kaiser Wilhelm Society for Basic Sciences was renamed the Max Planck Society. P. was a member of the German and Austrian Academies of Sciences, as well as scientific societies and academies of England, Denmark, Ireland, Finland, Greece, the Netherlands, Hungary, Italy, the Soviet Union, Sweden, Ukraine and the United States.

Nobel Prize laureates: Encyclopedia: Trans. from English – M.: Progress, 1992.
© The H.W. Wilson Company, 1987.
© Translation into Russian with additions, Progress Publishing House, 1992.

] Executive editor L.S. Polak. Compiled by U.I. Frankfurt.
(Moscow: Publishing House "Nauka", 1975. - Series "Classics of Science")
Scan, processing, format: ???, revision: AAW, mor, 2010

• CONTENT:
  From the editor (5).
  THERMODYNAMICS
  On the principle of increasing entropy. First message (9).
  On the principle of increasing entropy. Second message (25).
  On the principle of increasing entropy. Third message (36).
  On the principle of increasing entropy. Fourth message (69).
  Remarks on the Carnot-Clausius principle (102).
  Mr. Swinburne and Entropy (106).
  Entropy (109).
  On the mechanical meaning of temperature and entropy (111).
  On the Clausius theorem for irreversible cycles and on the increase of entropy (119).
  Toward the kinetic theory of gases. Critical Inquiry (121).
  On the absolute entropy of monatomic bodies (123).
  Absolute entropy and chemical constant (138).
  On the statistical definition of entropy (144).
  New statistical definition of entropy (154).
  On the potential difference of weak solutions (168).
  On the potential difference of weak solutions. Second message (173).
  Le Chatelier-Brown principle (177).
  Notes on quantity parameter, intensity parameter and stable equilibrium (186).
  RADIATION THEORY AND QUANTUM THEORY
  On irreversible radiation processes (191).
  Entropy and temperature of radiant energy (234).
  On one improvement of Wien's radiation law (249).
  Towards the theory of distribution of radiation energy of the normal spectrum (251).
  On the law of energy distribution in the normal spectrum (258).
  About the elementary quantum of matter and electricity (268).
  On irreversible radiation processes. Addition (271).
  Laws of thermal radiation and the hypothesis of the elementary quantum of action (282).
  Modern significance of the quantum hypothesis for the kinetic theory of gases (311).
  Modified formulation of the quantum hypothesis (325).
  On quantum actions in electrodynamics (331).
  Physical structure of phase space (339).
  On the nature of thermal radiation (370).
  On the question of quantization of a monatomic gas (384).
  Physical reality of light quanta (393).
  About Schrödinger's work on wave mechanics (398).
  An attempt to synthesize wave and corpuscular mechanics (401).
  An attempt to synthesize wave and corpuscular mechanics. Addendum (417).
  An attempt to synthesize wave and corpuscular mechanics. Second message (419).
  On the history of the discovery of the quantum of action (431).
  THEORY OF RELATIVITY
  The principle of relativity and the basic equations of mechanics (445).
  Kaufman's measurements of b-ray deflection and their implications for Electron dynamics (449).
  Addition to discussion of Kaufman measurements (462).
  On the dynamics of moving systems (466).
  Remarks on the principle of action and reaction in general dynamics (494).
  Uniform rotation and Lorentz contraction (498).
  ARTICLES AND SPEECHES
  About new physics (501).
  Theoretical physics (506).
  Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (510).
  Paul Drude (531).
  Helmholtz's merits in theoretical physics (553).
  Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (550).
  To the 25th anniversary of the discovery made by W. Friedrich, P. Knipschg and M. Laue (561).
  Memories (564).
  Twenty years of work on the physical picture of the world (568).
  Origin and influence of scientific ideas (590).
  The emergence and gradual development of quantum theory (603).
  Unity of the physical picture of the world (613).
  The relationship of modern physics to the mechanistic worldview (634).
  Scientific autobiography (649).
  Academic speeches (664).
  APPLICATION
  M. Planck and the emergence of quantum physics. L.S. Polak (685).
  Comments on one article by M. Planck. A.N. Frumkin (735).
  Thermodynamic works of M. Planck. U.I. Frankfurt (737).
  M. Planck as a physical chemist. Yu.I. Soloviev (745).
  M. Planck's works on the special theory of relativity. AND I. Itenberg, W.I. Frankfurt (754).
  Philosophical views of M. Planck. Yu.V. Sachkov, E.M. Chudinov (757).
  Bibliography (762).
  Name index (781).

Publisher's abstract: This edition of selected works of Max Planck, one of the founders of modern physics, includes articles on thermodynamics, statistical physics, quantum theory, special relativity, as well as general issues of physics and chemistry.
The book is of interest to physicists, chemists, historians of physics and chemistry.

General mechanics.

The reader is offered a book by the outstanding German scientist, Nobel laureate in physics Max Planck (1858-1947), which is a textbook on general mechanics.

The author considers a single material point, dividing all mechanics into two parts: the mechanics of a material point and the mechanics of a system of material points. The work is distinguished by the depth and clarity of presentation of the material and occupies an important place in the scientific heritage of the scientist.

Introduction to Theoretical Physics. Volume 2

Mechanics of deformable bodies.

This book, which examines the mechanics of an elastic deformable body, is a continuation of the course “General Mechanics” by the outstanding German physicist Max Planck.

The author, with usual skill, concisely and clearly introduces the reader to the range of research on the theory of elasticity, hydrodynamics and aerodynamics and the theory of vortex movements. In the minds of the reader of this book, the mechanics of deformable bodies should arise as a natural continuation of general mechanics, conditioned by internal necessity, and, above all, as a series of closely related, logically substantiated concepts. This will make it possible not only to study more detailed courses and specialized literature with full understanding, but also to carry out independent, more in-depth research.

Introduction to Theoretical Physics. Volume 3

Theory of electricity and magnetism.

This book, written by the outstanding German scientist, the founder of quantum mechanics Max Planck, contains a presentation of electrical and magnetic phenomena. The work is one of the monographs on the main branches of theoretical physics, which occupy an important place in Planck’s scientific heritage.

The material in the book is distinguished by its depth and clarity of description, thanks to which it has not lost its significance today.

Introduction to Theoretical Physics. Volume 4

Optics.

In the book of the outstanding German physicist Max Planck, much attention is paid to the systematic presentation and development of the main principles of theoretical optics, and their connections with other departments of physics are presented.

In the first two parts of the work, the author considers matter as a continuous medium with continuously changing properties. In the third part, when describing dispersion, an atomistic method of consideration is introduced. The author also outlines a natural transition to quantum mechanics based on classical theory with the help of an appropriate generalization.

Introduction to Theoretical Physics. Volume 5

Theory of heat.

This book is the fifth and final volume of Max Planck's Introduction to Theoretical Physics.

The first two parts of the work of the outstanding German physicist outline classical thermodynamics and the foundations of the theory of thermal conductivity. Moreover, thermal conductivity is considered by the author as the simplest example of irreversible processes. Thanks to this point of view, the transition from thermodynamics to the theory of thermal conductivity turns out to be clear and natural in Planck’s presentation.

The third part of the book is entirely devoted to the phenomena of thermal radiation. In subsequent chapters, the author outlines the fundamentals of atomism and quantum theory, classical and quantum statistics.

Selected works

This edition of selected works of Max Planck, one of the founders of modern physics, includes articles on thermodynamics, statistical physics, quantum theory, special relativity, as well as general issues of physics and chemistry.

The book is of interest to physicists, chemists, historians of physics and chemistry.

Quantum theory. Revolution in microcosm

Max Planck was often called a revolutionary, although he was against it.

In 1900, the scientist put forward the idea that energy is not emitted continuously, but in the form of portions, or quanta. An echo of this hypothesis, which upended existing ideas, was the development of quantum mechanics - a discipline that, together with the theory of relativity, underlies the modern view of the Universe.

Quantum mechanics examines the microscopic world, and some of its postulates are so surprising that Planck himself admitted more than once that he could not keep up with the consequences of his discoveries. A teacher of teachers, he stood at the helm of German science for decades, managing to maintain a spark of intelligence during the dark period of Nazism.

Energy conservation principle

M. Planck’s book “The Principle of Conservation of Energy” is devoted to the history and justification of the law of conservation and transformation of energy, this most important law of nature for the justification of materialism.

The book was published four times in German; from the last edition (1921) and the present translation was made. The first part was translated by R.Ya. Steinman, the other two - S.G. Suvorov.

The translators did not want to deviate from the original style of the author when translating, but in some cases, when individual phrases of the original spread over an entire page, they were still forced to “lighten” this style.

Some of Planck's references to specific physical studies are already outdated. Therefore, in the 1908 edition, Planck made a number of additional comments. Such remarks, although not of a fundamental nature, could be multiplied somewhat. Planck left the third and fourth editions unchanged compared to the second. The translators also considered it possible to limit themselves to the author’s own additions to the second edition.

More significant is the absence in reissues of history of the law of conservation and transformation of energy over the past fifty years, which are very important for its development. The translators, of course, could not exhaust this story with individual remarks; it requires independent research beyond the scope of this work. However, some very significant aspects of the subsequent development of the law, namely, the struggle of various directions in physics around assessing the meaning of the law and its interpretation, are highlighted in the article by S.G. Suvorov. In it the reader will also find an assessment of M. Planck’s book.

Max Planck (1858-1947), German physicist, one of the founders of quantum theory, foreign corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1913) and honorary member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1926). He introduced (1900) the quantum of action (Planck's constant) and, based on the idea of ​​quanta, derived the law of radiation, which was named after him.

Works on thermodynamics, theory of relativity, philosophy of natural science. Nobel Prize (1918). Max Planck (1858-1947) - German theoretical physicist, developed the thermodynamic theory of thermal radiation. Planck introduced a new universal constant to explain it h

- quantum of action. Thanks to this, it was established that the propagation of light, its emission and absorption occur discretely, in certain portions - quanta. The discovery of this constant marked the transition from the macroworld to a qualitatively new area - the world of quantum phenomena, the microworld. Thus, Planck was the founder of quantum theory, which established the moment of discontinuity (discreteness) in energy processes and extended the idea of ​​atomism to all natural phenomena. Taking a spontaneously materialist position on a number of fundamental issues of science, Planck sharply criticized empirio-criticism.

Philosophical Dictionary. Ed. I.T. Frolova. M., 1991, p. 343.

German physicist Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck was born on April 23, 1858 in the Prussian city of Kiel, in the family of civil law professor Johann Julius Wilhelm von Planck. In 1867, the family moved to Munich, and there Planck entered the Royal Maximilian Classical Gymnasium. After graduating from high school in 1874, he preferred physics.

For three years Planck studied mathematics and physics at the University of Munich and a year at the University of Berlin. Planck received his doctorate in 1879, having defended his thesis at the University of Munich “On the second law of the mechanical theory of heat” - the second law of thermodynamics, which states that no continuous self-sustaining process can transfer heat from a colder body to a warmer one. A year later, he defended his dissertation “The Equilibrium State of Isotropic Bodies at Different Temperatures,” which earned him the position of junior assistant at the Faculty of Physics at the University of Munich.

In 1885 he became an associate professor at the University of Kiel. In 1888, he became an associate professor at the University of Berlin and director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics (the post of director was created specifically for him).

From 1887 to 1924, Planck published a number of works on the thermodynamics of physical and chemical processes. The theory of chemical equilibrium of dilute solutions that he created became especially famous. In 1897, the first edition of his lectures on thermodynamics was published. By that time, Planck was already an ordinary professor at the University of Berlin and a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences.

In 1896, Planck established, based on experiment, the law of thermal radiation of a heated body. At the same time, he was faced with the fact that the radiation is discontinuous. Planck was able to substantiate his law only with the help of the assumption that the energy of vibration of atoms is not arbitrary, but can only take on a number of well-defined values. It turned out that discontinuity is inherent in any radiation, that light consists of individual portions (quanta) of energy.

Planck established that light with a vibration frequency must be emitted and absorbed in portions, and the energy of each such portion is equal to the vibration frequency multiplied by a special constant, called Planck's constant.

On December 14, 1900, Planck reported to the Berlin Physical Society about his hypothesis and new formula for radiation. The hypothesis introduced by Planck marked the birth of quantum theory.

In 1906, Planck's monograph "Lectures on the Theory of Thermal Radiation" was published.

In 1901, based on experimental data on black body radiation, Planck calculated the value of Boltzmann's constant and, using other known information, obtained Avogadro's number (the number of atoms in one mole of an element). Based on Avogadro's number, Planck was able to find the electric charge of an electron with the highest accuracy.

In 1919, Planck was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1918 "in recognition of his services to the development of physics through the discovery of energy quanta." In his Nobel lecture given in 1920, Planck summed up his work and admitted that “the introduction of the quantum has not yet led to the creation of a true quantum theory.”

Among his other achievements is his proposed derivation of the Fokker-Planck equation, which describes the behavior of a system of particles under the influence of small random impulses. In 1928, at the age of seventy, Planck entered into his mandatory formal retirement, but did not break ties with the Kaiser Wilhelm Society for Basic Sciences, of which he became president in 1930.

A pastor (but not a priest) in Berlin, Planck was deeply convinced that science complemented religion and taught truthfulness and respect.

Planck was a member of the German and Austrian Academies of Sciences, as well as scientific societies and academies in England, Denmark, Ireland, Finland, Greece, the Netherlands, Hungary, Italy, the Soviet Union, Sweden and the United States. The German Physical Society named its highest award in his honor, the Planck Medal, and the scientist himself became the first recipient of this honorary award. Planck died in Göttingen on October 4, 1947, six months before his ninetieth birthday.

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(biographical reference book).(Planck, Max) (1858–1947), German theoretical physicist, founder of quantum theory. Born April 23, 1858 in Kiel. He studied at the Universities of Munich and Berlin, at the latter he attended a course of lectures by physicists Helmholtz and Kirchhoff and mathematician Weierstrass. At the same time, he carefully studied the works on thermodynamics of Clausius, which largely determined the direction of Planck’s research in these years. In 1879 he became a Doctor of Philosophy, submitting a dissertation for defense On the second law of mechanical heat. In his dissertation work, he examined the issue of the irreversibility of the heat conduction process and gave the first general formulation of the law of increasing entropy. A year after his defense, he received the right to teach theoretical physics and taught this course at the University of Munich for five years. In 1885 he became professor of theoretical physics at Kiel University. His most significant publication during this period was the book Energy conservation principle, who received a prize at the competition of the Faculty of Philosophy of the University of Göttingen. In 1889 Planck was invited to the University of Berlin to the position of extraordinary professor, and three years later he was appointed ordinary professor. In the first years of his stay in Berlin, he studied the theory of heat, electro- and thermochemistry, equilibrium in gases and dilute solutions.

In 1896 Planck began his classical research in the field of thermal radiation. Having set about solving the problem of energy distribution in the radiation spectrum of a black body, in 1900 he derived a semi-empirical formula, which at high temperatures and long wavelengths satisfactorily described the experimental data of Kurlbaum and Rubens, and at short waves and low temperatures turned into Wien's law. In the process of theoretically substantiating his formula, Planck came to a stunning conclusion: he discovered that the equation is valid only under one completely new concept, namely: during radiation, energy is not emitted or absorbed continuously and not in any quantities, but only in indivisible portions - “quanta” . In this case, the energy of the quantum is proportional to the oscillation frequency and the new fundamental constant, which has the dimension of action. This fundamental constant is now called Planck's constant. The day December 14, 1900, when Planck reported to the German Physical Society on the theoretical derivation of the law of radiation, became the date of birth of quantum theory and a new era in natural science. However, the theory proposed by Planck as a substantiation of the formula he derived did not attract the attention of scientists until 1905, when A. Einstein used the revolutionary idea of ​​quanta, extending it to the radiation process itself and predicting the existence of the photon. In 1918 Planck was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his theory. The scientist himself, at the end of his life, admitted that for many years in a row he tried to “somehow integrate the quantum of action into the system of classical physics,” but he failed.

Planck's work on the theory of relativity was of great importance. In 1906, he derived the equations of relativistic dynamics, obtaining expressions for the energy and momentum of the electron.

In 1926, Planck left his post at the University of Berlin (where E. Schrödinger became his successor), but continued to actively participate in its scientific life, and also gave public lectures on physics. In 1912–1938 he was permanent secretary of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, and for a long time was president of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (since 1948 – Max Planck Society). Obligated by his position to pay his respects to Hitler, he had a conversation with him in 1933, which he tried to use to prevent the mass dismissal of Jewish scientists.

During World War II, Planck suffered many hardships. The last years of his life were overshadowed by the death of his son, executed for participation in the assassination attempt on Hitler on July 20, 1944. Planck died in Göttingen on October 4, 1947.

Among the numerous works of the scientist - Lectures on the theory of thermal radiation (Vorlesungen über die Theorie der Warmestrahlung, 1906), Introduction to Theoretical Physics (Einführung in die theoretische Physik, Bd. 1–5, 1916–1930), Paths of physical knowledge (Wege zur physikalischen Erkenntnis, 1933).