Partial derivatives of a function, if they exist not at one point, but on a certain set, are functions defined on this set. These functions may be continuous and in some cases may also have partial derivatives at various points in their domain.

The partial derivatives of these functions are called second-order partial derivatives or second partial derivatives.

Second order partial derivatives are divided into two groups:

· second partial derivatives of a variable;

· mixed partial derivatives of with respect to variables and.

With subsequent differentiation, third-order partial derivatives can be determined, etc. By similar reasoning, partial derivatives of higher orders are determined and written.

Theorem. If all partial derivatives included in the calculations, considered as functions of their independent variables, are continuous, then the result of partial differentiation does not depend on the sequence of differentiation.

Often there is a need to solve the inverse problem, which consists in determining whether the total differential of a function is an expression of the form, where continuous functions with continuous derivatives of the first order.

The necessary condition for a total differential can be formulated as a theorem, which we accept without proof.

Theorem. In order for a differential expression to be in a domain the total differential of a function defined and differentiable in this domain, it is necessary that in this domain the condition for any pair of independent variables and is identically satisfied.

The problem of calculating the second order total differential of a function can be solved as follows. If the expression of the total differential is also differentiable, then the second total differential (or total differential of the second order) can be considered the expression obtained as a result of applying the differentiation operation to the first total differential, i.e. . The analytical expression for the second total differential is:

Taking into account the fact that mixed derivatives do not depend on the order of differentiation, the formula can be grouped and represented as quadratic form:

The matrix of quadratic form is:

Let a superposition of functions defined in and

Defined in. Wherein. Then, if and have continuous partial derivatives up to the second order at the points and, then there is a second full differential complex function of the following form:

As you can see, the second complete differential does not have the property of form invariance. The expression of the second differential of a complex function includes terms of the form that are absent in the formula of the second differential of a simple function.

The construction of partial derivatives of a function of higher orders can be continued by performing sequential differentiation of this function:

Where the indices take values ​​from to, i.e. the order derivative is considered as a first-order partial derivative of the order derivative. Similarly, we can introduce the concept of a complete differential of the order of a function, as a complete differential of the first order from a differential of order: .

In the case of a simple function of two variables, the formula for calculating the total differential of the order of the function has the form

The use of the differentiation operator allows us to obtain a compact and easy-to-remember form of notation for calculating the total differential of the order of a function, similar to Newton's binomial formula. In the two-dimensional case it has the form.

Linearization of a function. Tangent plane and normal to the surface.

Derivatives and differentials of higher orders.

1. Partial derivatives of the FNP *)

Consider the function And = f(P), РÎDÌR n or, what is the same,

And = f(X 1 , X 2 , ..., x n).

Let's fix the values ​​of the variables X 2 , ..., x n, and the variable X 1 let's give increment D X 1 . Then the function And will receive an increment determined by the equality

= f (X 1 +D X 1 , X 2 , ..., x n) – f(X 1 , X 2 , ..., x n).

This increment is called private increment functions And by variable X 1 .

Definition 7.1. Partial derivative function And = f(X 1 , X 2 , ..., x n) by variable X 1 is the limit of the ratio of the partial increment of a function to the increment of the argument D X 1 at D X 1 ® 0 (if this limit exists).

The partial derivative with respect to X 1 characters

Thus, by definition

Partial derivatives with respect to other variables are determined similarly X 2 , ..., x n. From the definition it is clear that the partial derivative of a function with respect to a variable x i is the usual derivative of a function of one variable x i, when other variables are considered constants. Therefore, all previously studied rules and differentiation formulas can be used to find the derivative of a function of several variables.

For example, for the function u = x 3 + 3xy – z 2 we have

Thus, if a function of several variables is given explicitly, then the questions of the existence and finding of its partial derivatives are reduced to the corresponding questions regarding the function of one variable - the one for which it is necessary to determine the derivative.

Let's consider implicitly given function. Let the equation F( x, y) = 0 defines an implicit function of one variable X. Fair

Theorem 7.1.

Let F( x 0 , y 0) = 0 and functions F( x, y), F¢ X(x, y), F¢ at(x, y) are continuous in some neighborhood of the point ( X 0 , at 0), and F¢ at(x 0 , y 0) ¹ 0. Then the function at, given implicitly by the equation F( x, y) = 0, has at the point ( x 0 , y 0) derivative, which is equal to

.

If the conditions of the theorem are satisfied at any point of the region DÌ R 2, then at each point of this region .

For example, for the function X 3 –2at 4 + wow+ 1 = 0 we find

Let now the equation F( x, y, z) = 0 defines an implicit function of two variables. Let's find and. Since calculating the derivative with respect to X produced at a fixed (constant) at, then under these conditions the equality F( x, y=const, z) = 0 defines z as a function of one variable X and according to Theorem 7.1 we get

.

Likewise .

Thus, for a function of two variables given implicitly by the equation , partial derivatives are found using the formulas: ,

Partial derivatives of a function of two variables.
Concept and examples of solutions

In this lesson we will continue our acquaintance with the function of two variables and consider perhaps the most common thematic assignment– finding partial derivatives of the first and second order, as well as the total differential of the function. Part-time students, as a rule, encounter partial derivatives in the 1st year in the 2nd semester. Moreover, according to my observations, the task of finding partial derivatives almost always appears on the exam.

For effective learning the following material for you necessary be able to more or less confidently find “ordinary” derivatives of functions of one variable. You can learn how to handle derivatives correctly in lessons How to find the derivative? And Derivative of a complex function. We also need a table of derivatives elementary functions and the rules of differentiation, it is most convenient if it is at hand in printed form. Get it reference material possible on the page Mathematical formulas and tables.

Let's quickly repeat the concept of a function of two variables, I will try to limit myself to the bare minimum. A function of two variables is usually written as , with the variables being called independent variables or arguments.

Example: – function of two variables.

Sometimes the notation is used. There are also tasks where the letter is used instead of a letter.

WITH geometric point In terms of vision, a function of two variables most often represents a surface of three-dimensional space (plane, cylinder, sphere, paraboloid, hyperboloid, etc.). But, in fact, this is more analytic geometry, and on our agenda is mathematical analysis, which my university teacher never let me cheat on and is my strong point.

Let's move on to the question of finding partial derivatives of the first and second orders. I have some good news for those who have had a few cups of coffee and are tuning in to some incredibly difficult material: partial derivatives are almost the same as “ordinary” derivatives of a function of one variable.

For partial derivatives, all differentiation rules and the table of derivatives of elementary functions are valid. There are only a couple of small differences, which we will get to know right now:

...yes, by the way, for this topic I created small pdf book, which will allow you to “get your teeth into” in just a couple of hours. But by using the site, you will certainly get the same result - just maybe a little slower:

Example 1

Find the first and second order partial derivatives of the function

First, let's find the first-order partial derivatives. There are two of them.

Designations:
or – partial derivative with respect to “x”
or – partial derivative with respect to “y”

Let's start with . When we find the partial derivative with respect to “x”, the variable is considered a constant (constant number).

Comments on the actions performed:

(1) The first thing we do when finding the partial derivative is to conclude all function in brackets under the prime with subscript.

Attention, important! WE DO NOT LOSE subscripts during the solution process. IN in this case, if you draw a “stroke” somewhere without a , then the teacher, at a minimum, can put it next to the assignment (immediately bite off part of the point for inattention).

(2) We use the rules of differentiation , . For simple example like this one, both rules can easily be applied in one step. Pay attention to the first term: since is considered a constant, and any constant can be taken out of the derivative sign, then we put it out of brackets. That is, in this situation it is no better than an ordinary number. Now let's look at the third term: here, on the contrary, there is nothing to take out. Since it is a constant, it is also a constant, and in this sense it is no better than the last term - “seven”.

(3) We use tabular derivatives and .

(4) Let’s simplify, or, as I like to say, “tweak” the answer.

Now . When we find the partial derivative with respect to “y”, then the variableconsidered a constant (constant number).

(1) We use the same differentiation rules , . In the first term we take the constant out of the sign of the derivative, in the second term we can’t take anything out since it is already a constant.

(2) We use the table of derivatives of elementary functions. Let’s mentally change all the “X’s” in the table to “I’s”. That is, this table is equally valid for (and indeed for almost any letter). In particular, the formulas we use look like this: and .

What is the meaning of partial derivatives?

In essence, 1st order partial derivatives resemble "ordinary" derivative:

- This functions, which characterize rate of change functions in the direction of the and axes, respectively. So, for example, the function characterizes the steepness of “rises” and “slopes” surfaces in the direction of the abscissa axis, and the function tells us about the “relief” of the same surface in the direction of the ordinate axis.

! Note : here we mean directions that parallel coordinate axes.

For the purpose of better understanding, let’s consider a specific point on the plane and calculate the value of the function (“height”) at it:
– and now imagine that you are here (ON THE surface).

Let's calculate the partial derivative with respect to "x" at a given point:

The negative sign of the “X” derivative tells us about decreasing functions at a point in the direction of the abscissa axis. In other words, if we make a small, small (infinitesimal) step towards the tip of the axis (parallel to this axis), then we will go down the slope of the surface.

Now we find out the nature of the “terrain” in the direction of the ordinate axis:

The derivative with respect to the “y” is positive, therefore, at a point in the direction of the axis the function increases. To put it simply, here we are waiting for an uphill climb.

In addition, the partial derivative at a point characterizes rate of change functions in the corresponding direction. The greater the resulting value modulo– the steeper the surface, and vice versa, the closer it is to zero, the flatter the surface. So, in our example, the “slope” in the direction of the abscissa axis is steeper than the “mountain” in the direction of the ordinate axis.

But those were two private paths. It is quite clear that from the point we are at, (and in general from any point on a given surface) we can move in some other direction. Thus, there is an interest in creating a general "navigation map" that would inform us about the "landscape" of the surface if possible at every point domain of definition of this function along all available paths. I will talk about this and other interesting things in one of the following lessons, but for now let’s return to the technical side of the issue.

Let us systematize the elementary applied rules:

1) When we differentiate with respect to , the variable is considered a constant.

2) When differentiation is carried out according to, then is considered a constant.

3) The rules and table of derivatives of elementary functions are valid and applicable for any variable (or any other) by which differentiation is carried out.

Step two. We find second-order partial derivatives. There are four of them.

Designations:
or – second derivative with respect to “x”
or – second derivative with respect to “Y”
or - mixed derivative of “x by igr”
or - mixed derivative of "Y"

There are no problems with the second derivative. Speaking in simple language, the second derivative is the derivative of the first derivative.

For convenience, I will rewrite the first-order partial derivatives already found:

First, let's find mixed derivatives:

As you can see, everything is simple: we take the partial derivative and differentiate it again, but in this case - this time according to the “Y”.

Likewise:

In practical examples, you can focus on the following equality:

Thus, through second-order mixed derivatives it is very convenient to check whether we have found the first-order partial derivatives correctly.

Find the second derivative with respect to “x”.
No inventions, let's take it and differentiate it by “x” again:

Likewise:

It should be noted that when finding, you need to show increased attention, since there are no miraculous equalities to verify them.

Second derivatives also find wide practical use, in particular, they are used in the task of finding extrema of a function of two variables. But everything has its time:

Example 2

Calculate the first order partial derivatives of the function at the point. Find second order derivatives.

This is an example for independent decision(answers at the end of the lesson). If you have difficulty differentiating roots, return to the lesson How to find the derivative? In general, pretty soon you will learn to find such derivatives “on the fly.”

Let's get our hands on more complex examples:

Example 3

Check that . Write down the first order total differential.

Solution: Find the first order partial derivatives:

Pay attention to the subscript: , next to the “X” it is not forbidden to write in parentheses that it is a constant. This note can be very useful for beginners to make it easier to navigate the solution.

Further comments:

(1) We move all constants beyond the sign of the derivative. In this case, and , and, therefore, their product is considered a constant number.

(2) Don’t forget how to correctly differentiate roots.

(1) We take all constants out of the sign of the derivative; in this case, the constant is .

(2) Under the prime we have the product of two functions left, therefore, we need to use the rule for differentiating the product .

(3) Do not forget that this is a complex function (albeit the simplest of complex ones). We use the corresponding rule: .

Now we find mixed derivatives of the second order:

This means that all calculations were performed correctly.

Let's write down the total differential. In the context of the task under consideration, it makes no sense to tell what the total differential of a function of two variables is. It is important that this very differential very often needs to be written down in practical problems.

First order total differential function of two variables has the form:

In this case:

That is, you just need to stupidly substitute the already found first-order partial derivatives into the formula. In this and similar situations, it is best to write differential signs in numerators:

And according to repeated requests from readers, second order complete differential.

It looks like this:

Let's CAREFULLY find the “one-letter” derivatives of the 2nd order:

and write down the “monster”, carefully “attaching” the squares, the product and not forgetting to double the mixed derivative:

It's okay if something seems difficult; you can always come back to derivatives later, after you've mastered the differentiation technique:

Example 4

Find first order partial derivatives of a function . Check that . Write down the first order total differential.

Let's look at a series of examples with complex functions:

Example 5

Find the first order partial derivatives of the function.

Solution:

Example 6

Find first order partial derivatives of a function .
Write down the total differential.

This is an example for you to solve on your own (answer at the end of the lesson). I won't give you a complete solution because it's quite simple.

Quite often, all of the above rules are applied in combination.

Example 7

Find first order partial derivatives of a function .

(1) We use the rule for differentiating the sum

(2) The first term in this case is considered a constant, since there is nothing in the expression that depends on the “x” - only “y”. You know, it’s always nice when a fraction can be turned into zero). For the second term we apply the product differentiation rule. By the way, in this sense, nothing would have changed if a function had been given instead - the important thing is that here product of two functions, EACH of which depends on "X", and therefore, you need to use the product differentiation rule. For the third term, we apply the rule of differentiation of a complex function.

(1) The first term in both the numerator and denominator contains a “Y”, therefore, you need to use the rule for differentiating quotients: . The second term depends ONLY on “x”, which means it is considered a constant and turns to zero. For the third term we use the rule for differentiating a complex function.

For those readers who courageously made it almost to the end of the lesson, I’ll tell you an old Mekhmatov joke for relief:

One day, an evil derivative appeared in the space of functions and started to differentiate everyone. All functions are scattered in all directions, no one wants to transform! And only one function does not run away. The derivative approaches her and asks:

- Why don’t you run away from me?

- Ha. But I don’t care, because I am “e to the power of X”, and you won’t do anything to me!

To which the evil derivative with an insidious smile replies:

- This is where you are mistaken, I will differentiate you by “Y”, so you should be a zero.

Whoever understood the joke has mastered derivatives, at least to the “C” level).

Example 8

Find first order partial derivatives of a function .

This is an example for you to solve on your own. The complete solution and example of the problem are at the end of the lesson.

Well, that's almost all. Finally, I can’t help but please mathematics lovers with one more example. It's not even about amateurs, it's about everyone different level mathematical training - there are people (and not so rare) who like to compete with more difficult tasks. Although, the last example in this lesson is not so much complex as it is cumbersome from a computational point of view.

Concept of a function of two variables

Magnitude z called function of two independent variables x And y, if each pair of permissible values ​​of these quantities, according to a certain law, corresponds to one completely definite value of the quantity z. Independent Variables x And y called arguments functions.

This functional dependence is analytically denoted

Z = f(x,y),(1)

The values ​​of the arguments x and y that correspond to the actual values ​​of the function z, are considered acceptable, and the set of all admissible pairs of values ​​x and y is called domain of definition functions of two variables.

For a function of several variables, in contrast to a function of one variable, the concepts of its private increments for each of the arguments and concept full increment.

Partial increment Δ x z of the function z=f (x,y) by argument x is the increment that this function receives if its argument x is incremented Δx with constant y:

Δ x z = f (x + Δx, y) -f (x, y), (2)

The partial increment Δ y z of a function z= f (x, y) over the argument y is the increment that this function receives if its argument y receives an increment Δy with x unchanged:

Δ y z= f (x, y + Δy) – f (x, y) , (3)

Full increment Δz functions z=f(x,y) by argument x And y is the increment that a function receives if both of its arguments receive increments:

Δz= f (x+Δx, y+Δy) – f (x, y) , (4)

For sufficiently small increments Δx And Δy function arguments

there is an approximate equality:

Δz Δ x z + Δ y z , (5)

and the smaller it is, the more accurate it is Δx And Δy.

Partial derivatives of a function of two variables

Partial derivative of the function z=f (x, y) with respect to the argument x at the point (x, y) called the limit of the partial increment ratio Δ x z this function to the corresponding increment Δx argument x when striving Δx to 0 and provided that this limit exists:

, (6)

The derivative of the function is determined similarly z=f(x,y) by argument y:

In addition to the indicated notation, partial derivative functions are also denoted by z΄ x , f΄ x (x, y); , z΄ y , f΄ y (x, y).

The main meaning of the partial derivative is as follows: the partial derivative of a function of several variables with respect to any of its arguments characterizes the rate of change of this function when this argument changes.

When calculating the partial derivative of a function of several variables with respect to any argument, all other arguments of this function are considered constant.

Example 1. Find partial derivatives of a function

f (x, y)= x 2 + y 3

Solution. When finding the partial derivative of this function with respect to the argument x, we consider the argument y constant value:

;

When finding the partial derivative with respect to the argument y, we consider the argument x to be a constant value:

.

Partial and complete differentials of functions of several variables

Partial differential of a function of several variables with respect to which-or from its arguments The product of the partial derivative of this function with respect to a given argument and the differential of this argument is called:

d x z= ,(7)

d y z= (8)

Here d x z And d y z-partial differentials of a function z=f(x,y) by argument x And y. Wherein

dx=Δx; dy=Δy, (9)

Full differential a function of several variables is called the sum of its partial differentials:

dz= d x z + d y z, (10)

Example 2. Let's find the partial and complete differentials of the function f (x, y)= x 2 + y 3 .

Since the partial derivatives of this function were found in Example 1, we obtain

d x z= 2xdx; d y z= 3y 2 dy;

dz= 2xdx + 3y 2 dy

Partial differential a function of several variables for each of its arguments is the main part of the corresponding partial increment of the function.

As a result, we can write:

Δ x z d x z, Δ y z d y z, (11)

The analytical meaning of the total differential is that the total differential of a function of several variables is main part full increment of this function.

Thus, there is an approximate equality

Δz dz, (12)

The use of the total differential in approximate calculations is based on the use of formula (12).

Let's imagine the increment Δz as

f (x + Δx; y + Δy) – f (x, y)

and the total differential is in the form

Then we get:

f (x + Δx, y + Δy) – f (x, y) ,

, (13)

3.The purpose of students’ activities in class:

The student must know:

1. Definition of a function of two variables.

2. The concept of partial and total increment of a function of two variables.

3. Determination of the partial derivative of a function of several variables.

4. Physical meaning partial derivative of a function of several variables with respect to any of its arguments.

5. Determination of the partial differential of a function of several variables.

6. Determination of the total differential of a function of several variables.

7. Analytical meaning of the total differential.

The student must be able to:

1. Find the partial and total increment of a function of two variables.

2. Calculate partial derivatives of functions of several variables.

3. Find partial and complete differentials of a function of several variables.

4. Use the total differential of a function of several variables in approximate calculations.

Theoretical part:

1. The concept of a function of several variables.

2. Function of two variables. Partial and total increment of a function of two variables.

3. Partial derivative of a function of several variables.

4. Partial differentials of functions of several variables.

5. Complete differential of a function of several variables.

6. Application of the total differential of a function of several variables in approximate calculations.

Practical part:

1.Find the partial derivatives of the functions:

1) ; 4) ;

2) z= e xy+2 x; 5) z= 2tg xe y;

3) z= x 2 sin 2 y; 6) .

4. Define the partial derivative of a function with respect to a given argument.

5. What is called the partial and total differential of a function of two variables? How are they related?

6. List of questions to check the final level of knowledge:

1. In the general case of an arbitrary function of several variables, is its total increment equal to the sum of all partial increments?

2. What is the main meaning of the partial derivative of a function of several variables with respect to any of its arguments?

3. What is the analytical meaning of the total differential?

7.Chronocard training session:

1. Organizing time- 5 minutes.

2. Analysis of the topic – 20 min.

3. Solving examples and problems - 40 min.

4. Current knowledge control -30 min.

5. Summing up the lesson – 5 min.

8. List of educational literature for the lesson:

1. Morozov Yu.V. Fundamentals of higher mathematics and statistics. M., “Medicine”, 2004, §§ 4.1–4.5.

2. Pavlushkov I.V. and others. Fundamentals of higher mathematics and mathematical statistics. M., "GEOTAR-Media", 2006, § 3.3.

Partial derivative functions z = f(x, y by variable x The derivative of this function at a constant value of the variable y is called, it is denoted by or z" x.

Partial derivative functions z = f(x, y) by variable y is called the derivative with respect to y at a constant value of the variable y; it is designated or z" y.

The partial derivative of a function of several variables with respect to one variable is defined as the derivative of that function with respect to the corresponding variable, provided that the remaining variables are held constant.

Full differential function z = f(x, y) at some point M(X, y) is called the expression

,

Where and are calculated at the point M(x, y), and dx = , dy = y.

Example 1

Calculate the total differential of the function.

z = x 3 – 2x 2 y 2 + y 3 at point M(1; 2)

Solution:

1) Find partial derivatives:

2) Calculate the value of partial derivatives at point M(1; 2)

() M = 3 1 2 – 4 1 2 2 = -13

() M = - 4 1 2 2 + 3 2 2 = 4

3) dz = - 13dx + 4 dy

Questions for self-control:

1. What is called an antiderivative? List the properties of the antiderivative.

2. What is called indefinite integral?

3. List properties not definite integral.

4. List the basic integration formulas.

5. What integration methods do you know?

6. What is the essence of the Newton–Leibniz formula?

7. Give the definition of a definite integral.

8. What is the essence of calculating a definite integral using the substitution method?

9. What is the essence of the method of calculating a definite integral by parts?

10. Which function is called a function of two variables? How is it designated?

11. Which function is called a function of three variables?

12. What set is called the domain of definition of a function?

13. Using what inequalities can you define a closed region D on a plane?

14. What is the partial derivative of the function z = f(x, y) with respect to the variable x? How is it designated?

15. What is the partial derivative of the function z = f(x, y) with respect to the variable y? How is it designated?

16. What expression is called the total differential of a function

Topic 1.2 Ordinary differential equations.

Problems leading to differential equations. Differential equations with separable variables. General and specific solutions. Homogeneous differential equations of the first order. Linear homogeneous equations second order with constant coefficients.

Practical lesson No. 7 “Finding general and particular solutions differential equations with separable variables"*

Practical lesson No. 8 “Linear and homogeneous differential equations”

Practical lesson No. 9 “Solving 2nd order differential equations with constant coefficients”*

L4, chapter 15, pp. 243 – 256

Guidelines