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A systematic approach helps. Systems approach. The concept of system, element, structure. Systematic approach - what is it?

A systematic approach helps. Systems approach. The concept of system, element, structure. Systematic approach - what is it?

methodological direction in science, the main task of which is to develop methods for research and design of complex objects - systems different types and classes.

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systems approach

SYSTEMS APPROACH- direction of philosophy and methodology of science, specially scientific knowledge and social practice, which is based on the study of objects as systems. S.P. focuses research on revealing the integrity of an object and the mechanisms that provide it, identifying the diverse types of connections of a complex object and bringing them together into a single theoretical picture. The concept of "S. P." (English “systems approach”) began to be widely used from the late 60s - early 70s. 20th century in English and Russian. philosophical and systems literature. Close in content to “S. P." are the concepts of “systems research”, “systematic principle”, “general systems theory” and “systems analysis”. S. p. - interdisciplinary philosophical, methodological and scientific direction research. Without directly solving philosophical problems, S. p. needs a philosophical interpretation of its provisions. An important part of the philosophical justification of S. p. is systematic principle. Historically, the ideas of a systematic study of objects of the world and processes of cognition arose in ancient philosophy (Plato, Aristotle), were widely developed in the philosophy of modern times (I. Kant, F. Schelling), and were studied by K. Marx in relation to economic structure capitalist society. In the theory of biological evolution created by Charles Darwin, not only an idea was formulated, but an idea of the reality of supraorganism levels of life organization ( essential prerequisite systems thinking in biology). S.p. represents a certain stage in the development of methods of cognition, research and design activities, methods of describing and explaining the nature of analyzed or artificially created objects. The principles of S. p. replace those widespread in the 17th-19th centuries. concepts of mechanism and oppose them. S.P. methods are most widely used in the study of complex developing objects—multilevel, hierarchical, self-organizing biological, psychological, social, and other systems, large technical systems, “man-machine” systems, etc. The most important tasks of scientific research include: 1) development of means for representing objects being studied and constructed as systems; 2) construction of generalized models of the system, models of different classes and specific properties of systems; 3) study of the structure of systems theories and various system concepts and developments. In systems research, the analyzed object is considered as a certain set of elements, the interconnection of which determines the integral properties of this set. The main emphasis is on identifying the variety of connections and relationships that take place both within the object under study and in its relationships with the external environment. The properties of an object as an integral system are determined not only and not so much by the summation of the properties of its individual elements, but by the properties of its structure, special system-forming, integrative connections of the object under consideration. To understand the behavior of systems (primarily purposeful), it is necessary to identify the control processes implemented by a given system - the forms of information transfer from one subsystem to another and the ways in which some parts of the system influence others, the coordination of the lower levels of the system by elements of its highest level of control, the influence on the last of all other subsystems. Significant importance in scientific research is given to identifying the probabilistic nature of the behavior of the objects under study. Important feature The advantage is that not only the object, but also the research process itself acts as a complex system, the task of which, in particular, is to combine various models of the object into a single whole. System objects are very often not indifferent to the process of their research and in many cases can have a significant impact on it. In the context of the unfolding of the scientific and technological revolution in the second half of the 20th century. There is a further clarification of the content of the scientific process - the disclosure of its philosophical foundations, the development of logical and methodological principles, and further progress in the construction of a general theory of systems. S. p. is a theoretical and methodological basis system analysis. The prerequisite for the penetration of scientific research into science in the 20th century. there was, first of all, a transition to a new type of scientific problems: in a number of areas of science, problems of the organization and functioning of complex objects began to occupy a central place; cognition operates with systems, the boundaries and composition of which are far from obvious and require special research in each individual case. In the second half of the 20th century. tasks of a similar type arise in social practice: in social management, instead of the previously prevailing local, sectoral tasks and principles, large-scale ones begin to play a leading role complex problems, requiring close interconnection of economic, social, environmental and other aspects of public life (for example, global problems, complex problems of socio-economic development of countries and regions, problems of creating modern industries, complexes, urban development, environmental protection measures, etc.). The change in the type of scientific and practical problems is accompanied by the emergence of general scientific and special scientific concepts, which are characterized by the use in one form or another of the basic ideas of scientific research. Along with the extension of the principles of scientific research to new areas scientific knowledge and practices, from the mid-20th century. The systematic development of these principles in methodological terms begins. Initially, methodological studies were grouped around the tasks of constructing a general theory of systems. However, the development of research in this direction has shown that the totality of problems in the methodology of systems research significantly goes beyond the scope of the tasks of developing only a general theory of systems. To designate this broader sphere of methodological problems, the term “S. P.". S. p. does not exist in the form of a strict theoretical or methodological concept: it performs its heuristic functions, remaining a set of cognitive principles, the main meaning of which is the appropriate orientation of specific research. This orientation is accomplished in two ways. First, the substantive principles of scientific research make it possible to document the insufficiency of old, traditional subjects of study for setting and solving new problems. Secondly, the concepts and principles of scientific research significantly help to construct new subjects of study, specifying the structural and typological characteristics of these subjects and thus contributing to the formation of constructive research programs. The role of scientific research in the development of scientific, technical, and practical-oriented knowledge is as follows. Firstly, the concepts and principles of social science reveal a broader cognitive reality compared to that which was recorded in previous knowledge (for example, the concept of the biosphere in the concept of V. I. Vernadsky, the concept of biogeocenosis in modern ecology, optimal approach in economic management and planning, etc.). Secondly, within the framework of scientific research, new explanation schemes are being developed, in comparison with the previous stages of the development of scientific knowledge, which are based on the search for specific mechanisms of the integrity of an object and the identification of the typology of its connections. Thirdly, from the thesis about the variety of types of connections of an object, which is important for social science, it follows that any complex object allows for several divisions. In this case, the criterion for choosing the most adequate division of the object being studied can be the extent to which it is possible to construct a “unit” of analysis that allows one to record the integral properties of the object, its structure and dynamics. The breadth of the principles and basic concepts of scientific research puts it in close connection with other methodological areas of modern science. In terms of its cognitive attitudes, S. p. has much in common with structuralism and structural-functional analysis, with which it is connected not only by operating with the concepts of system, structure and function, but also by an emphasis on the study of various types of connections of an object. At the same time, the principles of social security have a broader and more flexible content; they were not subjected to such rigid conceptualization and absolutization, which was characteristic of some interpretations of structuralism and structural-functional analysis. I.V. Blauberg, E.G. Yudin, V.N. Sadovsky Lit.: Problems of system research methodology. M., 1970; Blauberg I.V., Yudin E.G. Formation and essence of the systems approach. M., 1973; Sadovsky V.N. Foundations of general systems theory: Logical and methodological analysis. M., 1974; Uemov A.I. Systems approach and general systems theory. M., 1978; Afanasyev V.G. Systematicity and society. M., 1980; Blauberg I.V. The problem of integrity and systems approach. M., 1997; Yudin E.G. Methodology of science: Systematicity. Activity. M, 1997; Systems research. Yearbook. Vol. 1-26. M., 1969-1998; Churchman C.W. The Systems Approach. N.Y., 1968; Trends in General Systems Theory. N.Y., 1972; General Systems Theory. Yearbook. Vol. 1-30. N.Y., 1956-85; Critical Systems Thinking. Directed Readings. N.Y., 1991.

Significant place in modern science takes a systematic method of research or (as is often said) a systems approach.

The special development of the systems approach began in the mid-twentieth century with the transition to the study and use in practice of complex multicomponent systems.

The systems approach is a direction of research methodology, which is based on considering an object as an integral set of elements in a set of relationships and connections between them, that is, considering the object as a system.

Speaking about a systems approach, we can talk about a certain way of organizing our actions, one that covers any type of activity, identifying patterns and relationships in order to use them more effectively. At the same time, the systems approach is not so much a method of solving problems as a method of setting problems. As they say, "Correct asked question- half the answer." This is a qualitatively higher way of cognition than just an objective one.

Basic concepts of the systems approach: “system”, “element”, “composition”, “structure”, “functions”, “functioning” and “goal”. Let's expand on them to fully understand the systems approach.

A system is an object whose functioning, necessary and sufficient to achieve its goal, is ensured (in certain conditions environment) by the totality of its constituent elements that are in appropriate relationships with each other.

An element is an internal initial unit, a functional part of a system, the own structure of which is not considered, but only its properties necessary for the construction and operation of the system are taken into account. The "elementary" nature of an element lies in the fact that it is the limit of division of a given system, since its internal structure in this system is ignored, and it appears in it as a phenomenon that in philosophy is characterized as simple. Although in hierarchical systems an element can also be considered as a system. What distinguishes an element from a part is that the word “part” only indicates the internal belonging of something to an object, while “element” always denotes a functional unit. Every element is a part, but not every part is an element.

Composition is a complete (necessary and sufficient) set of elements of a system, taken outside its structure, that is, a set of elements.

Structure is the relationship between elements in a system that is necessary and sufficient for the system to achieve its goal.

Functions are ways of achieving a goal based on the appropriate properties of the system.

Functioning is the process of realizing the appropriate properties of a system, ensuring it achieves its goal.

A goal is what a system must achieve based on its functioning. The goal can be a certain state of the system or another product of its functioning. The importance of the goal as a system-forming factor has already been noted. Let us emphasize it again: an object acts as a system only in relation to its goal. A goal requiring to be achieved certain functions, determines through them the composition and structure of the system.

The focus of the systems approach is not on studying the elements as such, but primarily on the structure of the object and the place of the elements in it. In general, the main points of the systematic approach are as follows:

1. Study of the phenomenon of integrity and establishment of the composition of the whole and its elements.

2. Study of the patterns of connecting elements into a system, i.e. structure of the object, which forms the core of the systems approach.

3. In close connection with the study of structure, it is necessary to study the functions of the system and its components, i.e. structural and functional analysis of the system.

4. Study of the genesis of the system, its boundaries and connections with other systems.

A detailed definition of a systems approach also includes the obligation to study and practical use the following aspects:

1. system-element or system-complex, consisting in identifying the elements that make up this system.

2. system-structural, which consists in clarifying the internal connections and dependencies between the elements of a given system and allowing one to get an idea of the internal organization (structure) of the object under study;

3. system-functional, which involves identifying the functions for which the corresponding objects were created and exist;

4. system-targeted, meaning the need to scientifically determine the goals of the research and their mutual coordination;

5. system-resource, which consists in carefully identifying the resources required to solve a particular problem;

6. system-integration, consisting in determining the totality of qualitative properties of the system, ensuring its integrity and peculiarity;

7. system-communication, meaning the need to identify external connections of this object with others, that is, his connections with environment;

8. systemic-historical, which makes it possible to find out the conditions in the time of occurrence of the object under study, the stages it has passed through, current state, as well as possible development prospects.

Basic principles of the systems approach:

Integrity, which allows us to simultaneously consider the system as a single whole and at the same time as a subsystem for higher levels.

Hierarchical structure, i.e. the presence of a plurality (at least two) of elements arranged on the basis of subordination of elements lower level- elements of the highest level. The implementation of this principle is clearly visible in the example of any specific organization. As you know, any organization is an interaction of two subsystems: the managing and the managed. One is subordinate to the other.

Structuring, which allows you to analyze the elements of the system and their relationships within a specific organizational structure. As a rule, the process of functioning of a system is determined not so much by the properties of its individual elements as by the properties of the structure itself.

Multiplicity, allowing for the use of multiple cyber, economic and mathematical models to describe individual elements and the system as a whole.

A significant place in modern science is occupied by a systematic method of research or (as is often said) a systems approach.

Systems approach- a direction of research methodology, which is based on considering an object as an integral set of elements in a set of relationships and connections between them, that is, considering an object as a system.

Speaking about a systems approach, we can talk about a certain way of organizing our actions, one that covers any type of activity, identifying patterns and relationships in order to use them more effectively. At the same time, the systems approach is not so much a method of solving problems as a method of setting problems. As they say, “A question asked correctly is half the answer.” This is a qualitatively higher way of cognition than just an objective one.

System - an object whose functioning, necessary and sufficient to achieve its goal, is ensured (under certain environmental conditions) by a set of its constituent elements that are in appropriate relationships with each other.

Element - an internal source unit, a functional part of the system, the own structure of which is not considered, but only its properties necessary for the construction and operation of the system are taken into account. The “elementary” nature of an element lies in the fact that it is the limit of division of a given system, since its internal structure in a given system is ignored, and it appears in it as a phenomenon that in philosophy is characterized as simple. Although in hierarchical systems an element can also be considered as a system. What distinguishes an element from a part is that the word “part” only indicates the internal belonging of something to an object, while “element” always denotes a functional unit. Every element is a part, but not every part - element.

Compound - a complete (necessary and sufficient) set of elements of the system, taken outside its structure, that is, a set of elements.

Structure - relationships between elements in a system that are necessary and sufficient for the system to achieve its goal.

Functions - ways to achieve a goal based on the appropriate properties of the system.

Operation - the process of realizing the appropriate properties of the system, ensuring it achieves its goal.

Target is what the system must achieve based on its functioning. The goal may be a certain state of the system or another product of its functioning. The importance of the goal as a system-forming factor has already been noted. Let us emphasize it again: an object acts as a system only in relation to its goal. The goal, requiring certain functions for its achievement, determines through them the composition and structure of the system. For example, is a pile of building materials a system? Any absolute answer would be wrong. Regarding the purpose of housing - no. But as a barricade, a shelter, probably yes. A pile of building materials cannot be used as a house, even if all the necessary elements are present, for the reason that there are no necessary elements between the elements spatial relations, that is, structures. And without structure, they represent only a composition - a set of necessary elements.

The focus of the systems approach is not on studying the elements as such, but primarily on the structure of the object and the place of the elements in it. In general main points of the systems approach the following:

1. Study of the phenomenon of integrity and establishment of the composition of the whole and its elements.

2. Study of the patterns of connecting elements into a system, i.e. structure of the object, which forms the core of the systems approach.

3. In close connection with the study of structure, it is necessary to study the functions of the system and its components, i.e. structural and functional analysis of the system.

4. Study of the genesis of the system, its boundaries and connections with other systems.

Methods for constructing and justifying theories occupy a special place in the methodology of science. Among them, explanation occupies an important place - the use of more specific, in particular, empirical knowledge to understand more general knowledge. The explanation could be:

a) structural, for example, how the motor is designed;

b) functional: how the motor operates;

c) causal: why and how it works.

When constructing a theory of complex objects, the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete plays an important role.

On initial stage cognition proceeds from the real, objective, concrete to the development of abstractions that reflect individual aspects of the object being studied. By dissecting an object, thinking, as it were, kills it, imagining the object dismembered, dismembered by the scalpel of thought.

A systems approach is an approach in which any system (object) is considered as a set of interconnected elements (components) that has an output (goal), input (resources), communication with the external environment, and feedback. This is the most complex approach. The systems approach is a form of application of the theory of knowledge and dialectics to the study of processes occurring in nature, society, and thinking. Its essence lies in the implementation of the requirements of the general theory of systems, according to which each object in the process of its study should be considered as a large and complex system and, at the same time, as an element of a more general system.

A detailed definition of a systems approach also includes the mandatory study and practical use of the following its eight aspects:

1. system-element or system-complex, consisting in identifying the elements that make up a given system. In all social systems you can discover material components (means of production and consumer goods), processes (economic, social, political, spiritual, etc.) and ideas, scientifically-conscious interests of people and their communities;

3. system-functional, which involves identifying the functions for which the corresponding objects were created and exist;

4. system-targeted, meaning the need to scientifically determine the goals of the research and their mutual coordination;

5. system-resource, which consists in carefully identifying the resources required to solve a particular problem;

6. system-integration, consisting in determining the totality of qualitative properties of the system, ensuring its integrity and peculiarity;

7. system-communication, meaning the need to identify the external connections of a given object with others, that is, its connections with the environment;

8. systemic-historical, which makes it possible to find out the conditions in time for the emergence of the object under study, the stages it has passed through, the current state, as well as possible prospects for development.

Basic assumptions of the systems approach:

1. There are systems in the world

2. System description is true

3. Systems interact with each other, and, therefore, everything in this world is interconnected

Basic principles of the systems approach:

Integrity, which allows us to simultaneously consider the system as a single whole and at the same time as a subsystem for higher levels.

Hierarchical structure, i.e. the presence of many (at least two) elements located on the basis of the subordination of lower-level elements to higher-level elements. The implementation of this principle is clearly visible in the example of any specific organization. As you know, any organization is an interaction of two subsystems: the managing and the managed. One is subordinate to the other.

Structuring, allowing you to analyze the elements of the system and their relationships within a specific organizational structure. As a rule, the process of functioning of a system is determined not so much by the properties of its individual elements as by the properties of the structure itself.

Plurality, which allows the use of many cybernetic, economic and mathematical models to describe individual elements and the system as a whole.

Levels of a systematic approach:

There are several types of systems approach: complex, structural, holistic. It is necessary to separate these concepts.

A complex approach presupposes the presence of a set of object components or applied research methods. In this case, neither the relationships between the components, nor the completeness of their composition, nor the relationship of the components with the whole are taken into account.

The structural approach involves studying the composition (subsystems) and structures of an object. With this approach, there is still no correlation between subsystems (parts) and the system (whole). Decomposition of systems into subsystems is not carried out in the only way.

In a holistic approach, relationships are studied not only between the parts of an object, but also between the parts and the whole.

From the word “system” you can form others - “systemic”, “systematize”, “systematic”. In a narrow sense, a systems approach refers to the application of systems methods to study real physical, biological, social and other systems. A systems approach in a broad sense also includes the use of system methods to solve problems of systematics, planning and organizing a complex and systematic experiment.

A systematic approach contributes to the adequate formulation of problems in specific sciences and the development of an effective strategy for their study. The methodology and specificity of the systems approach is determined by the fact that it focuses the research on revealing the integrity of the object and the mechanisms that provide it, identifying the diverse types of connections of a complex object and bringing them together into a single theoretical picture.

The 1970s saw a boom in the use of the systems approach throughout the world. The systems approach was applied in all spheres of human existence. However, practice has shown that in systems with high entropy (uncertainty), which is largely due to “non-system factors” (human influence), a systematic approach may not give the expected effect. The last remark indicates that “the world is not as systemic” as the founders of the systems approach imagined it.

Professor Prigozhin A.I. This is how the limitations of the systems approach are defined:

1. Consistency means certainty. But the world is uncertain. Uncertainty is essentially present in the reality of human relationships, goals, information, and situations. It cannot be completely overcome, and sometimes it fundamentally dominates certainty. The market environment is very mobile, unstable and only to some extent modelable, knowable and controllable. The same is true for the behavior of organizations and employees.

2. Systematicity means consistency, but, say, value orientations in an organization and even in one of its participants are sometimes contradictory to the point of incompatibility and do not form any system. Of course, various motivations introduce some consistency into work behavior, but always only partly. We often find this in the totality of management decisions, and even in management groups and teams.

3. Systematicity means integrity, but, say, customer base wholesale, retail firms, banks, etc. does not form any integrity, since it cannot always be integrated and each client has several suppliers and can change them endlessly. Information flows in the organization also lack integrity. Isn’t that the case with the organization’s resources?”

35. Nature and society. Natural and artificial. The concept of "noosphere"

Nature in philosophy is understood as everything that exists, the whole world, subject to study by the methods of natural science. Society is a special part of nature, identified as a form and product of human activity. The relationship between society and nature is understood as the relationship between the system of human society and the habitat of human civilization.

A component of the concepts “system approach”, “system analysis”, “system problem”, “system research” is “system”. It is believed that this word appeared in Ancient Hellas 2000–2500 years ago and, depending on the context, originally meant: combination, organism, device, organization, system, union. It also expressed certain acts of activity and their results (something put together, something put in order). That is, initially the word “system” was associated with forms of socio-historical existence. The transfer of the meaning of a word from one object to another and at the same time the transformation of the word into a certain generalized concept was accomplished in stages.

Systematicity has always, consciously or unconsciously, been a method of any science. The physicist was the first to raise the question of a scientific approach to managing complex systems Andre Marie Ampere. When constructing a classification of all kinds of sciences (1834–1843), he singled out special science about government and called it cybernetics. He emphasized its main systemic features: “The government constantly has to choose among various measures the one that is most suitable for achieving the goal ... and only through an in-depth and comparative study of the various elements provided to it for this choice, knowledge of everything that concerns the people it governs , - character, views, history, religion, means of subsistence and prosperity, organizations and laws - it can form for itself general rules behavior that guides him in each specific case. I call this science cybernetics from the word kybernetike, which first meant, in a narrow sense, the art of controlling a ship, and then received a broader meaning of the art of control in general.”

The ideas of systematicity in relation to state management were also developed in the works of the Polish scientist B. Trentovsky. In his work “The Attitude of Philosophy to Cybernetics as the Art of Managing the People,” he emphasized that truly effective management must take into account all the most important external and internal factors affecting the object of management. In particular, the philosopher wrote: “Our successes are related to how systematically we approach solving problems, and our failures are caused by deviations from systematicity. A signal that existing activities are not sufficiently systematic is the emergence of a problem.”

Among the founders of the systems approach are A. Alexander Alexandrovich Bogdanov. In 1911, the first volume of his book “General Organizational Science (Tectology)” was published, and in 1925, the third. It is based on the idea that all existing objects and processes have a certain degree, level of organization. Unlike specific natural sciences that study the specific features of the organization of specific phenomena, tectology must study the general patterns of organization for all levels of organization.

All phenomena were considered by A. Bogdanov as continuous processes of organization and disorganization. He did not give a strict definition of the concept of organization, but noted that the higher the level of organization, the more the properties of the whole differ from the simple sum of the properties of its parts.

An important feature of tectology is that its main attention is paid to the patterns of development of an organization, the importance of feedback, taking into account the organization’s own goals (which can either contribute to the goals of the highest level of the organization or contradict them), and the role of open systems. A. Bogdanov emphasized the role of modeling and mathematics as potential methods for solving problems in tectonics. Later, the ideas of organization theory were developed in the works of outstanding representatives of Russian natural science I. I. Shmalgauzen and V. N. Beklemishev.

The idea of the South African lawyer and military leader can be considered as a necessary prerequisite for the emergence of a systematic approach Jan-Christian Smuts about the integrity of various forms of life. In 1926, he outlined his synergistic view of the universe, noting that “an organism is composed of parts, but is not simply the sum of those parts.”

In scientific use, the law of synergy, according to which complex systems ah, the properties and capabilities of the whole exceed the properties and capabilities of the parts, introduced I. Ansoff. Synergetics studies the mechanisms of interaction between elements of a system in the process of its self-organization and self-development.

The practical value of studying the synergistic effect lies primarily in the use unique properties large systems - self-organization and the ability to determine a very limited number of parameters, the influence on which can be controlled by the system.

The methodological prerequisites for the emergence of a systems approach can be considered the development of a theory common systems L. Bertalanffy, A. Rapoport and K. Boulding, the creation of the science of cybernetics by N. Wiener and the development of information theory.

Systems theory L. von Bertalanffy. The idea of constructing a theory applicable to systems of any nature was put forward at the beginning of the twentieth century. Ludwig von Bertalanffy.

Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1901–1972) – Austrian biologist, PhD, professor at a number of universities in Austria, Canada and the USA. The main contribution of L. Bertalanffy to the emergence and development of a systems approach to management is associated with the introduction of the concept of “open system” and the creation of the “theory of general systems”.

According to L. Bertalanffy, a living organism is more than the sum of individual elements, since it uses the principle of synergy to organize their interaction. All organisms exist in close relationship with the external environment, their functions and structure are maintained through continuous exchange of information with it. Therefore, any organism, and in relation to management, any organization can be considered as an open system.

The key concepts of the theory of open systems are the concepts of self-organization as a method of progressive differentiation, equifinality, reflecting the independence of the final state from the initial conditions, and teleology, which describes the dependence of the behavior of an organism on certain goals “known in advance” in the future. Open systems theory views organizations as complex systems made up of parts that must be studied as a whole. The main objective of the organization is to ensure survival through transformation external influences and adaptation to ongoing changes. Since the elements of the organization are living people, the administration must take into account the peculiarities of the manifestation of human nature in the labor process.

In contrast to open systems, closed systems are based on the same fundamental principles and laws that operate in physics. Thinking in terms of closed systems is consistent with classical management theory. In accordance with this approach, closed organizations are managed by administrative and technical personnel, operations in them are routine and repetitive in nature and are limited to

to solve predetermined problems. In these systems, there is a strict hierarchy of control, strict subordination of departments, and much attention is paid to ensuring the effectiveness of the activities of individual structural units.

According to Western scientists, the influence of L. Bertalanffy's theory of open systems on the theory of business and management turned out to be enormous, since it was she who helped formulate the theories of enterprise management in the 1950s–1960s. In addition, it was invisibly present in those used in the 1990s. practical methods management.

L. von Bertalanffy worked a lot on the problem of generalizing the concept of open systems with a view to its application in other fields of knowledge. This work led him to develop general systems theory and a new understanding of the unity of science. Its main provisions were first presented at a scientific seminar in Chicago in 1937. Throughout the 1940s and 1950s. L. Bertalanffy continued to develop a general theory of systems, which aims to formulate and develop principles applicable to all systems.

Thus, L. Bertalanffy gave the first impetus to the development of a new systemic direction in science in general and management science in particular.

Cybernetics and the development of information theory. In 1948, American mathematician Norbert Wiener published a book called Cybernetics.
According to the definition of A.I. Berg, cybernetics is the science of optimal control of complex dynamic systems.

A. N. Kolmogorov proposed another definition: cybernetics is the science of systems that perceive, store, process and use information.

The subject of cybernetics is the study of systems. Cybernetics studies the problems of forming and transmitting control actions to achieve a given state of a system of arbitrary nature, i.e., achieving a certain level of its organization.

N. Wiener's cybernetics is associated with such advances in the development of system concepts as typification of system models, identification of the special significance of feedback in the system, emphasizing the principle of optimality in the control and synthesis of systems, awareness of information as a universal property of matter and the possibility of its quantitative description, development of modeling methodology in general and especially the ideas of mathematical experiments using a computer.

Simultaneously with N. Wiener’s research, the development of information theory. Its subject was the encoding, transmission and decoding of messages, channel capacities and the mathematical study of communications.

An attempt to combine the ideas of L. Bertalanffy, cybernetics of N. Wiener and information theory in unified system undertook Kenneth Boulding. He gives a special place to the theory of general systems, which, in his opinion, “is aimed at creating a framework (structure) on which certain disciplines and subjects must be strung in the appropriate order.”

The needs of practice, almost simultaneously with the emergence of systems theory, led to the emergence of a direction called operations research. This direction arose in connection with military tasks, but thanks to the developed mathematical apparatus, based on methods of optimization, mathematical programming and mathematical statistics, has become quite widespread in other applied areas, in economic problems, in solving problems of organizing production and enterprise management.

In 1948, in the works of the RAND Corporation, which was engaged in the development of military doctrines, problems of analysis and forecasting of the development of the US military potential, and space exploration, the so-called systems analysis first appeared. The first system analysis technique was the PATTERN technique, created by C. Davis. Currently, the methodology of systems analysis is considered the most constructive of the areas of systems research.

In the 60s XX century When formulating and studying complex problems of design and management, the term “systems engineering”, proposed in 1962 by Fedor Evgenievich Temnikov, became widespread. It was used mainly in applications of system methods only to technical areas, and for other areas the term “systemology” was proposed (in 1965 by I. B. Novik).

Thus, by the 60s. XX century Through the efforts of scientists from various fields of science, a philosophical basis and the necessary theoretical and methodological tools for systemic research were formed, which became the basis for the development of a systems approach to management.

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Quote by: Kezin A.I. History of management teachings. Kyiv: VIRA-R, 2000. P. 228.

Output of the tutorial:

Management history: tutorial/ E. P. Kostenko, E. V. Mikhalkina; South Federal University. - Rostov-on-Don: Yuzhny Publishing House federal university, 2014. - 606 p.

One of the main methodological components of systems research is the systems approach and the resulting systems concept of research. Let's understand these concepts.

The idea of a systems approach is that a certain integrity is isolated from the surrounding reality and placed under the category “system”. To bring an isolated object under the category “system” means to discover in it properties inherent in systems.

The main provisions of the systems approach:

1) any object is an open system interacting with the external environment (macrosystem);

2) the efficiency of the system is determined by its system qualities and environmental conditions;

3) elements of the system are considered in their interrelation and development.

The systems approach is the “supplier” of research objects for the researcher.

The main features of the systems approach:

1) one of the forms methodological knowledge, associated with the research and creation of objects as systems;

2) connection with systems theory and systems analysis, which implies:

Hierarchy of knowledge;

Studying the integrative properties and patterns of systems, revealing the basic mechanisms of integration of the whole;

Focus on receiving quantitative characteristics, creation of methods that narrow the ambiguity of concepts, definitions, and assessments.

Ultimately, all research is devoted to solving system problems in which the object of research is represented as a system.

The essence of the systems approach:

1) formulation of the research problem;

2) identifying the object of study as a system from the environment;

3) establishing the properties and components inherent in the system;

4) defining or setting goals for components based on the result of the entire system as a whole;

5) developing a model of the system and conducting research on it.

Thus, we found out that due to the systematic approach, systems are identified from the surrounding reality in a ready-made form. But systems can also be the result of creativity.

The creation of systems is also carried out in compliance with system requirements, and the process of building a system is presented in the form of a system concept.

The system concept contains basic ideas regarding the appearance of the object being researched or created and the goals of the research or creation, as well as regarding the theoretical and methodological foundations research or creation of systems.

As follows from the essence of systems research, the object of research or creation is systems.

Theoretical basis research or construction of systems include a set of various methods, on the basis of which the development of methodology and technology for research and construction of specific systems is carried out.

Basics of the system research concept:

1) philosophical foundations;

2) theoretical provisions for defining and formalizing an object or process as a system;

3) conditions for the integration of methods and the logic for ensuring the integrity of the research process;

4) systematic research technology.

The system concept answers the question: what kind of system are we building? Main components of the concept:

The purpose of building the system;

Principles of construction;

System model and its system characteristics;

Strategy for achieving the goal;

Strategy implementation mechanism.

A systematic approach requires considering the problem not in isolation, but in the unity of connections with the environment, comprehending the essence of each connection and individual element, and making associations between general and specific goals. All this forms a special method of thinking that allows you to react flexibly to changes in the situation and make informed decisions.

The methodology of the systems approach determines the levels of decomposition and procedures for analysis and/or synthesis of systems that satisfy certain pre-formulated requirements.

The selection of satisfactory options is carried out at each considered level of system representation (conceptual, functional, technological) in stages (selection of structures, parameters, modes).

Each level-stage has its own set of criteria and takes into account its own a priori information. The levels of decomposition of systems based on the systems approach are shown in Fig. 6.8.

All methodological procedures of the systems approach can be reduced to the following three:

1) a procedure that implements the analysis (synthesis) of the system from the particular to the general;

2) a procedure that implements the analysis (synthesis) of the system from the general to the specific;

3) hybrid type procedure.

The first case is associated with the initial development of system elements and the subsequent construction on their basis of generalized structures and the system as a whole to solve the main functional problems.

The advantage of the approach is in reducing the risk (errors, inadequacy of the goal) when building a system due to its gradual step-by-step development in accordance with the requirements placed on it.

The disadvantage of the approach is the necessity large number studies preceding the actual development of the system.

In the second case, the initial development of a concept or conceptual model of the system is assumed. The next steps are the detailing of the model elements and their relationships.

The advantage is the strict logic of the system synthesis procedure.

The disadvantage is the complexity of developing generalized system models and the high probability of risk that the system will not fully meet the requirements for it.

The third case involves the presence of several interactive steps, each of which can use one of the procedures described above.

Systems analysis, along with the systems approach, is also one of the main components of systems research. In this case, the term “system analysis” or “systems analysis” is considered at two levels:

General methodological, identical to the concept of “systemic research”;

Applied, identical to the concept of “classical analysis”.

The object of system analysis is systems, their statics and dynamics (Fig. 6.9).

The subject of system analysis is the system-wide characteristics of systems, the phenomena and processes that arise in them; patterns of functioning and development of systems, cause-and-effect relationships of their interaction with the environment.

So, we have stated that there are different formulations of the term “system analysis”. However, they can all be reduced to two.

In the first case, system analysis is a scientific direction within which the development of systems theory and the methodology of the systems approach is carried out in order to pose and solve semi-structured problems of a political, social, economic, scientific and technical nature. In this case, system analysis acts as a general scientific methodology.

In the second case, system analysis is analysis in the classical sense of this method,
i.e. systems analysis. IN in this case System analysis is in the nature of an applied method.

Consequently, system analysis can be interpreted as a whole, as a synonym for the methodology of systems research in general, and as a part, an independent method for studying objects such as a system.

Thus, system analysis in the interpretation of general scientific methodology also includes analysis in the classical sense, that is, it reflects the procedure for dividing a (mental or real) object into elements. At the same time, system analysis is inextricably linked with synthesis - combining elements into a single whole and, as a rule, with optimization - search optimal options separation and/or connection of elements. The difference between system analysis and analysis as such is presented in Fig. 6.10.

System analysis is different in that its main content is theoretical and applied research systemic connections and patterns in evolving systems, aimed at increasing the efficiency of functioning, management and development of the objects under study as a whole. Major Issues systems analysis - these are the problems of developing areas of systems research, which include the following:

Methods for describing and simplifying systems;

Synthesis and decomposition of systems;

Principles and technology of integrating various methods;

Problems of complexity, uncertainty and methods for solving them;

Problems of computer implementation of models and decision making.

System analysis of a specific object is complex

research task. Its solution is an important independent scientific achievement.

The analysis procedure is determined by the conditions of a particular study and the characteristics of the object. It is impossible to develop any universal schemes here. The development of each practical procedure is a creative act that combines experience, intuition and the individuality of the researcher.

System analysis as a whole, as a methodology for systems research, organically includes all known methodological approaches and methods for studying socio-economic, organizational and information technology systems.

The concepts used in systems analysis are concepts that characterize systems and categories of systems analysis (Figure 6.11).

The source of the development of complex systems are problems - contradictions. A solution to a problem that leads to a qualitatively new state of the system is a strategic decision.

Any system has its own limits of development. Purposeful qualitative changes in the system imply the presence of the original system quality in it. The development process in such conditions is a sequence of measures and steps to transform the initial system quality into the required one.

An effective search for a new systemic quality is always associated with management of the development process or systemic (strategic) management.

In general, when monitoring system development processes, it is necessary ideal model(paradigm, standard) relative to which deviations appear in the developing system.

Features systems analysis as a discipline:

1) the object of analysis is the system;

2) the system is in an integral relationship with the environment (macrosystem), and the system is considered as an element of the rosystem, separated from it according to goals, functions, structure and parameters of the dynamics of evolution;

3) the goal of system analysis is the formation of a system (system concept) and its strategy (strategy for its implementation);

4) the main system concept is the evolution of the structure-strategy of the system or an effective (optimal, rational or effective) sustainable developing system;

5) strategy for achieving a goal - a sequence of actions (algorithm or program) that ensures the progressive evolution of the system.

6) the methodological basis for achieving the goal is systemic and holistic-evolutionary and other approaches developed on its basis;

The main idea of system analysis comes down to justifying the starting positions for decision making through a thorough study of all existing factors, both quantitatively and qualitatively characterizing the analyzed problematic situation, as well as the decisions taken to overcome it.