A new species of man in Altai. Who is the “Denisovan man”? What London scientists say
An international team of scientists, with the participation of Russian researchers, obtained evidence of the earliest visits to Denisova Cave in Altai by people. According to the results of the analysis, Neanderthals began to appear here 200 thousand years ago, and Denisovans - about 300 thousand, which is much higher than previous estimates. Two articles were published in the journal Nature (), ().
Denisova Cave– a unique natural and archaeological monument of Altai. The cave is located on the right bank of the Anui River in the Altai Territory.
If you pick up a map and carefully examine the intersection of the borders of the Altai Territory and the Altai Republic, then on the right bank of the Anui River you can see the world famous Denisova Cave. Two settlements located next to it are called Cherny Anui and Soloneshnoye. The absolute height of the cave above the sea is more than 600 meters, and above the current river level - about 28 meters.
Denisova Cave is a unique natural and archaeological monument of Altai, which was proposed to be included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. The corresponding decision will be made before 2021.
It was here that the remains of Denisovan man, an extinct species of people closely related to us, were first discovered. And the DNA of the girl from the cave clearly proved the existence of hybrids various types of people. However, accurate dating of the presence of people at this site is extremely difficult to obtain due to the complex structure of the layers at its bottom.
In two new papers, scientists write that they used the most modern methods determining the age of samples. As a result, they came to the conclusion that Denisovans appeared in the cave approximately 287 thousand years ago and were here intermittently until 55 thousand years ago. This dating shifts the time of their appearance by about 100 thousand years relative to previous estimates, and also refutes the conclusions of some other works, according to which our relatives were last here about 30 thousand years ago. Neanderthals also visited the cave several times, but they appeared later (193 thousand years ago) and stopped visiting it earlier (97 thousand years ago).
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“The long-awaited research is based on the analysis of bones, remains of material culture and sedimentary deposits found in the Denisova Cave in southern Siberia, which is “strewn” with ancient human remains. They represent the first detailed history 300 thousand years of habitation on this site by various groups of ancient people.
Now we can tell the whole story of this cave, not just bits and pieces," says Zenobia Jacobs, a geochronologist at the University of Wollongong, Australia, who co-led one of the studies."
Scientists emphasize that most of the remains are older than 50 thousand years. And this is the threshold for radiocarbon analysis when working with organic materials. Other dating methods could not provide a clear picture because there was not a good enough map of the geological layers of the cave. The layers have shifted over thousands of years due to animal burrows and human activity. Because of this, remains and material culture artifacts can no longer be found in sediments of similar age.
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"To overcome these difficulties, the researchers, led by Jacobs and Richard Roberts, a geochronologist from Wollongong, used a dating method that determines when parts of the soil were last exposed to light. This allowed them to determine the age of those areas of the cave in which cultural layers of soil were disturbed and where the age of the adjacent part of the soil was highly divergent. They may then not include these areas when determining the age of sediments in the same geological layer as the hominin and tool remains.
The first signs that any ancient human species inhabited the cave are stone tools that date back to around 300,000 years ago - excavations began in the 1980s (see "Cave kin"). But researchers couldn't figure out whether Denisovans or Neanderthals made them. The Denisovan cave remains […] date from 200,000 years ago to 55,000 years ago, while the oldest Neanderthal remains are about 190,000 years old and the youngest about 100,000 years old."
The optical dating method used in the new work determines the time when the feldspar crystal was last exposed to light. The authors measured about 280,000 grains of the mineral obtained from more than 100 samples collected from stone tools and remains found in the cave. This made it possible to construct a detailed age map of all layers of layers. Data for the youngest layers were compared with the results of radiocarbon dating. Scientists call those obtained using a combination of dating methods very reliable.
New work also leads to the emergence of a new mystery - Paleolithic artifacts ranging in age from 43 thousand to 49 thousand years were found in the cave. Previously, scientists thought that they were made by the Denisovans, but now it turns out that they had already disappeared by that time. Perhaps the immediate ancestors are related to the creation of these items modern people, who ended up in the cave almost immediately after the Denisovans and could even hasten their departure. However, the remains of such people were not found.
Cave exploration
The cave was first explored by the Siberian paleontologist Nikolai Ovodov. In 1978, he took measurements, and then archaeologists under the leadership of Academician A.P. became interested in it. Okladnikova. Since 1982, scientists from the Institute of Archeology and Ethnography Russian Academy Sciences are comprehensively studying Denisova Cave on their own. For more than 30 years, archaeologists have been conducting excavations, discovering new things unknown to science. historical facts. Scientists from major scientific laboratories in other countries: the USA, Belgium, Japan, and Korea were also involved in the research.
The original field camp has grown and been reborn into a stationary research laboratory in which ancient objects found at the excavation site are studied. Every year, almost a hundred archaeological scientists, together with scientists from other specialties, carry out hard, painstaking work to uncover the secrets of the cave.
Denisova Cave was first mentioned in books of the 19th century. Missionary priest V.I. Verbitsky described it as an object not worthy of attention.
In 1926, artist N.K. Roerich visited Denisova Cave and left the following entry in his travel diary “Altai - Himalayas”: “Near Black Anui on Karakol there are caves. Their depth and extent are unknown. There are bones and inscriptions there.”
1. Name (more precisely, working title) - “Denisova 11”.
2. Source of information: nuclear DNA obtained from 175 mg of bone powder. Find: bone fragment 24.7 × 8.4 mm, location in the skeleton has not been established.
3. The girl’s age is over 13 years (as stated in one of scientific reports, “the age of the bone remains is more than 13 years before death”).
4. Father is Denisovan, mother is Neanderthal.
5. The parents of “Denisova 11” are not purebred representatives of their subspecies; they carry the genetic trace of previous crossings, which is reflected in the girl’s genome. So, her father had at least one Neanderthal ancestor during his life.
6. The ancestors of “Denisova 11” along the Neanderthal line were probably relatively recent (about 20,000 years before the girl’s life) newcomers from Europe: in particular, their genetic connection can be traced with the inhabitants of the Vindija cave (Croatia).
7. 1.2% of Denisova 11 DNA fragments correspond to modern humans, 38.6% to Neanderthals and 42.3% to Denisovans.
Professor Svante Paabo, head of the laboratory at the Max Planck Institute for the Study of Human History (Leipzig, Germany):
– And to this day we are all hybrids. In the genome of certain groups of modern people one can find 10-15% of Neanderthal genes and 1.5-5% of Denisovan genes. Even such a low proportion affects, according to one of our hypotheses, adaptability to high altitude inhabitants of Tibet and to the cold - Greenland. Why not more? First, populations of Homo subspecies did not meet and interbreed as often. Secondly, there was selective selection directed against hybridization.
Vivian Sloan, employee of the laboratory of Svante Pääbo:
– We carefully checked all our results and the purity of their receipt. Versions such as mixing of material in the laboratory, errors in analytical equipment, and even the consequences of cannibalism were excluded. We can confidently say: the genome of the daughter of Denisovan man and a representative of the Altai Neanderthal population was sequenced(which separated more than 390,000 years ago - website note)
It has also been established that crossing of different subspecies of hominids in the Pleistocene era occurred almost every time different populations came into contact.
Location of Denisova Cave
Scientific director of the Institute of Archeology and Ethnography SB RAS, Academician Anatoly Panteleevich Derevyanko:
Neanderthals also lived in the cave along with the Denisovans. The question naturally arises: how did they coexist? Recently I put forward two hypotheses.
The first is antagonistic, when two species compete to the point of mutual destruction and even consumption of their own kind as food. This is supported by the absence of Neanderthal industrial objects in Denisova Cave - only fragments of their remains. Although, I note that in the Okladnikov Cave, located 45 km (as the crow flies), a sufficient number of Neanderthal stone products were found, more archaic compared to Denisovan ones.
The second hypothesis is that there was a complementary relationship between Neanderthals and Denisovan people, even to the point of interbreeding. This option is supported by the last discovery included in the subtitle.
In the same eleventh layer in 2016, a fragment of human bone was found, so tiny that it has not yet been possible to establish its exact place in the skeleton. But sequencing of the DNA obtained from the bone showed that this girl, no younger than 13 years old, was a hybrid of a Neanderthal and a Denisovan, and in the fourth generation. Note that mixed-species offspring (for example, horses and donkeys) are not capable of further reproduction. Since Neanderthals and Denisovans interbred more than once, it follows that they belong to the same biological species, despite all the already established cultural and genetic differences.
This is an extremely important fundamental discovery. Denisovans and Neanderthals also interbred with early humans modern look, formed in Africa 200–150 thousand years ago. All this testifies to unity biological species, settled in Africa and Eurasia. And this attracts more and more of our colleagues from all over the world to Denisova Cave: archaeologists, geneticists, anthropologists, paleontologists.
Did this discovery bring new knowledge about appearance Denisovans? Not yet. Genetic analysis provides incomplete information, since not all parts of the ancient genome can be restored. It all depends on the length of the chain and its sections that can be examined. So, about the first girl from Denisova Cave, we only know that she was dark-skinned and brown-eyed, plus her approximate age.
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In the genome of an extinct species, the Denisovan, unusual pieces of DNA were discovered that apparently came from some other group.
Perhaps this is evidence of the existence of a completely different species of hominin, until known to science. Or it could be the first genetic evidence of one of the many species we know about only from fossils.
The new hominin left its traces in the genome of Denisovan, an extinct hominin whose existence is known from a finger bone and two teeth found in a Siberian cave. No one knows what Denisovans looked like because we have no other fossils. However, geneticists managed to decipher their genome with high accuracy.
David Reich from Harvard Medical School (USA) carefully examined the Denisovan genome and came to the conclusion that some segments do not fit into the overall picture.
The genome suggests that Denisovans were cousins of Neanderthals - but this has long been known. Their lineage separated from ours about 400 thousand years ago, before splitting into Neanderthals and Denisovans.
This must mean that Denisovans and Neanderthals equally different from modern humans, but on closer examination Mr. Reich discovered that this was not the case. “Denisovans appear to be further from modern humans than Neanderthals,” says the scientist. For example, scattered fragments that account for up to 1% of the Denisovan genome appear to be more ancient than the remaining parts.
The best explanation for this is that Denisovans interbred with some other species. Or what happened is what Mr. Reich himself says: “The Denisovans preserved hereditary information unknown archaic population not related to Neanderthals."
Johannes Krause from the University of Tübingen (Germany) considers the presented data convincing, “they are difficult to ignore.” Mr Krause is one of a number of geneticists who are studying the Denisovan genome in search of traces of interbreeding. The fact is that Denisovans’ teeth are unusually large, as if we were looking at a more primitive species. If Denisovans actually interbred with an archaic species, this might explain everything.
So, what kind of people were these with whom the Denisovans became related? Mr. Krause is betting on a species that is already familiar to us, since many hominins are known only from fossils and have never been subjected to genetic analysis. And many of them could meet Denisovans on their way.
The most likely candidate is Heidelberg man, says Chris Stringer of the Natural History Museum in London (UK). This species existed 250–600 thousand years ago. It originated in Africa, but then spread throughout Europe and western Asia. Early Denisovans, whose ancestors followed the same path, may have come into contact with them.
Another option is Homo erectus. It was even more widespread than Heidelberg man: it even reached Java. But its western populations - occupying the same territory as the Denisovans - might not wait for them.
DNA analysis of Heidelberg Man could clarify the situation, but this is easier said than done. The genome of Denisovans and Neanderthals survived primarily because they lived in cold, dry places. Other hominins preferred hot, humid areas where DNA decays quickly. A number of fossils have been found in Asia, the species of which cannot be determined, and scientists are still unsuccessfully struggling to isolate DNA samples from them.
Whoever that mysterious people turns out to be, the main thing is to understand that interspecies crossing was completely common in the history of human evolution. After our direct predecessors left Africa, they “slept” with both Neanderthals and Denisovans. And although the ancestors of today's African hunter-gatherers never left the continent, recent research has shown that they were not above unidentified hominins. Apparently, this episode took place approximately 35 thousand years ago, and they were interested in representatives of a species that separated from our lineage about 700 thousand years ago.
The results of the study were presented in London at a Royal Society discussion meeting on ancient DNA.
The nature of man, the origin of man, is something that has concerned people since ancient times. There are many versions and theories. Scientists are conducting research, trying to find answers to all questions. After reading the article, you will learn about another subspecies of ancient extinct people.
Denisovan man, or Denisovans, supposedly existed in the Soloneshensky region of the Altai Territory near Denisova Cave. Evidence of this was found in different periods and in different layers of the cave.
On this moment Only five fragments have been established that allow us to talk about Denisovan man. However, these traces are not yet enough to completely restore his appearance. However, the fragments found are sufficient to establish that the remains of this person are different from the remains of Homo Sapiens, as well as from the remains of a Neanderthal.
Denisova Cave
This cave is the most popular archaeological site that Altai can boast of. Denisovo man lived right here, 250 kilometers from the city of Biysk. The cave is quite large, with an area of 270 m².
It is located near settlements, belongs to the horizontal type, which attracts a large number of tourists. However, there are also archaeologists here, whose hard work still led to results.
According to the results of research, in the lower layers of the cave, which are about 120 thousand years old, stone tools and jewelry were found, as well as traces ancient man, which was called Denisovan.
Fragments of the remains of Denisovan man
During the existence of the Soviet state, three molars were found that were significantly larger in size than the teeth of Homo sapiens. According to the examination, they belonged to a young male. A fragment of a finger phalanx was also found; this element is still being analyzed.
In a later period, already in 2008, another element was found - the bone of the phalanx of a child’s finger.
Denisovan genome
The found fragment in the form of a phalanx of a Denisovan finger was studied by a team of scientists from the Leipzig Institute of Evolutionary Anthropology. The study showed that the mitochondrial DNA of Denisovan man differs from the mitochondrial DNA of Homo sapiens by 385 nucleotides. It is worth noting that the Neanderthal genome differs from the Homo Sapiens genome by 202 nucleotides.
Denisovan man is closer to Neanderthal than to Homo sapiens. It is also worth noting that its genes were found in Melanesians, which suggests mass interbreeding of people at the moment when Melanesians left Africa and migrated to the southeast.
Descendants of Denisovan man
According to studies conducted, Denisovan man separated as a subspecies approximately 400-800 thousand years ago. Today, the study of fragments found in it allows us to find its genes in many modern nations. For example, the most similar elements are found in residents of countries South-East Asia and southern China, despite the fact that traces of these ancient people have been found in Siberia.
It was also found that the named subspecies of extinct people, as well as the Neanderthal man, transmitted genes responsible for the immune system to the European population. Thanks to this find, it was also possible to create a computer model demonstrating the migration path of different types of ancestors of modern humans and the places where they met the Denisovans.
Scientists from Sweden believe that traces of Denisovan man can be found by comparing the DNA found with the DNA of modern people.
After the comparison, information was obtained about the similarity of Denisovan with modern man, and about the matches found in Neanderthals and Denisovans. It was also possible to find out that the genes of Denisovan man are contained in the genotypes of people belonging to oceanic and non-African populations.
Harvard Medical School work
According to research from Harvard Medical School, Denisovans are significantly further from modern humans than Neanderthals, although they were originally considered cousins. Neanderthals and Denisovans were thought to be equally different from Homo sapiens. However, Harvard scientist David Reich managed to refute this.
However, the scientist himself says that this difference can also be explained by the fact that Denisovans interbred with different types ancient people.
The point of view of the German scientist Johannes Krause
German geneticist Johannes Krause from the University of Tübingen believes that the found fragments should under no circumstances be ignored. Together with his colleagues, the scientist is studying the genome of Denisovan man for the presence of traces of interbreeding. The fact is that the Denisovan teeth found are very large for such an ancient human species. It seems that its immediate ancestor was a primitive species.
According to the professor, the oddity with the teeth may well be explained by the theory that Denisovans interbred with archaic versions of people. Moreover, according to the professor, most likely it was a species already known to us, since most of them have not been studied at the genetic level.
What do London scientists say?
London researcher Chris Stringer from a museum in the UK believes that while settling throughout Europe and Western Asia, he could well have met Denisovan man, which led to mass interbreeding. Erectus is also an excellent option, since it was common in many territories and could have encountered Denisovans.
Of course, these disputes can be resolved with the help of a conventional DNA analysis of all these species, but this is impossible to do, since they simply have not been preserved. Most hominins lived in hot environments, and therefore the genome was not preserved in their remains, unlike the remains of Neanderthals and Denisovans, which were found mainly in harsher and colder conditions.
The role of crossing in human nature
Today, many species and subspecies of ancient people who are our ancestors are already known. However, there is no denying the fact that after they left Africa, they mated with many other species. It is likely that some more interesting genomes will be identified in the future.
At the moment, it is already known that mass interbreeding occurred constantly, including with as yet unidentified hominins. According to many scientists, interest in other species arose approximately 700 thousand years ago.
Based on the research conducted, we can conclude that at some point in time, human evolution was divided into several lines, one of which subsequently led to Denisovan man, and from the other came the more ancient ancestors of Homo sapiens and Neanderthals. Scientists have also established that Neanderthals, Denisovans and other species of Homo Sapiens lived in Altai for some time and interbred with each other. In addition, interbreeding also occurred with other species that Denisovans encountered in different periods of time and in different territories.
It is a pity that the DNA of other species of ancient people was not preserved, otherwise this connection could have been traced more clearly. However modern sciences about man does not stand still, and perhaps we will soon learn something new about our origin.
More than 20 archaeological cultural layers of the Denisova Cave contain ancient history Northern Asia - from the Early Paleolithic to the Middle Ages
We drove for a long time, leaving hundreds of kilometers behind: an important archaeological site is located far from large settlements and good roads. The last part of the path generally went along a mountain serpentine road. But no matter how tired we were by the end of the trip, our reward was the incredible beauty of Altai - mountains, raging rivers and the vast sky. And, of course, the air, which absorbed the smell of pine nuts, resin and honey. We overcame these distances to see with our own eyes a unique artifact - the oldest bone needle, which was recently found in Denisova Cave by scientists from the Institute of Archeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, and to ask the director of the institute, Dr. historical sciences Mikhail Vasilievich Shunkov.
Of course, the conversation was not limited to discussing an important find - people living in these parts think in different categories, they are not afraid to pose global questions and painstakingly, year after year, search for answers to them.
-Mikhail Vasilyevich, the reason for our visit was the most ancient needle, which everyone is talking about now.
The found needle is the oldest and largest item of its kind known in world archeology today. This find suggests that the culture of the ancient inhabitants of the Denisova Cave was at a fairly high level of development and was in no way inferior to the culture of Homo sapiens.
- When was Denisova Cave discovered? And why did it become the subject of archaeological research?
This cave was discovered as an archaeological site in 1977, when academician Alexey Pavlovich Okladnikov sent a small detachment here. Of course, the cave was known before this. It was even described by the artist N.K. Roerich, when he traveled with his wife and son in Altai in 1926. But also other expeditions of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. visited this cave. Mostly scientists from Tomsk University. After the formation of the first Siberian University Altai began to be actively explored by geographers and geologists - V.V. Sapozhnikov, rector of Tomsk University, brothers B.V. and M.V. Tronovs. They studied Altai comprehensively, including caves. that is, it has been known in science for a long time.
It should be noted that caves are one of the most complex archaeological sites. In order to conduct research in them, a special approach is needed. In 1977 A.P. Okladnikov, the first director of our institute, organized a small expedition here led by paleontologist N.D. Ovodov. This is one of the oldest employees of our institute. He is now alive, healthy and working productively. Nikolai Dmitrievich laid two pits. And with one hole he went through all the sediments in the center of the cave. It turned out that the cave contains many cultural layers of primitive man from different eras. It became clear that a new, very interesting object. But it did not immediately become clear that this was serious, long-term and required a lot of organizational work.
- That is, permanent excavations did not begin immediately?
Systematic excavations began in 1982. First, under the leadership of Academician V.I. Molodin uncovered the upper part of the cave deposits, the Holocene strata, that is, those cultural layers that are no older than 10 thousand years. This is Vyacheslav Ivanovich’s area of interest - the Middle Ages, the early Iron Age, the Bronze Age and the Neolithic. After this, excavations began on the underlying horizons, which are already older than 10 thousand years. And they continue to this day. Our main focus is on the most ancient stage of human history - the Paleolithic era. Excavations have shown that chronological period, which we study in the cave, is from 280 thousand to 10 thousand years.
- You said that there are other caves around. Why are excavations concentrated here?
Denisova Cave is a unique object in Russian archeology; there is no second one like it in Russia and in general in the entire post-Soviet space. Cultures ranging from early stage Middle Paleolithic to the Middle Ages. It is very important that on one site, in one geological section, we can trace the evolution of cultures, the transition from one stage to another.
- What period are the discoveries associated with, which everyone calls sensational?
I don’t like this word, but there’s probably no other way to call them. These finds are associated with the transition from the Middle Paleolithic era, the era of the Neanderthals, to the Upper Paleolithic, which is traditionally associated with anatomically modern humans - Homo Sapiens. Excavations have been ongoing in Denisova Cave for more than 25 years. And the finds from the middle part of the cave section have always attracted the greatest interest. In our nomenclature, this is stratigraphic layer 11. This is a layer that characterizes a new stage in the history of mankind - the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic. It has always received special attention from archaeologists, because it is a change of cultures. The formation of man with a modern physical appearance is associated with the culture of the initial stage of the Upper Paleolithic. It has always been believed that the Neanderthal was the bearer of the Mousterian (Middle Paleolithic) culture. Then Homo Sapiens came and brought a new culture of the Upper Paleolithic. And from that time began the history of man with a modern physical appearance. Man began not only to make tools from stone, but also to widely use bone. Burials, primitive art, rock paintings, etc. appeared.
- By the way, is there rock art in Denisova Cave?
Unfortunately no. On the territory of Russia, only two caves are known in the Southern Urals - Kapova (Shulgan-Tash) and Ignatievskaya, where the picturesque activity of primitive man was discovered. Europeans traditionally believed that the center of the most ancient “civilization” was southwestern France and northern Spain, because cave paintings were discovered there, and this is the highest creative and intellectual achievement of primitive man. No Paleolithic rock art has been found in our Altai, but the culture of the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, imprinted primarily in stone tools, is quite clearly represented not only in Denisova Cave, but also in monuments open type, which were found in the vicinity of the Denisova Cave, in the valley of the Anui River. In addition to the cave, we will also explore other objects here, less known, but no less significant for us. Sets of stone tools were found there, which in their appearance are very close to the stone tools characteristic of the sites of Western Europe from the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic. This is the so-called Aurignacian culture in Europe. Aurignacoid forms of tools were also discovered here in Altai. An interesting problem has arisen - the correlation of our Siberian, Altai materials and Western European, as well as Paleolithic products from Western Asia and the Middle East. There are a lot of analogies and parallels both in stone tools and in various decorations.
- Do scientists still believe that Homo Sapiens appeared in Africa and then began to populate Europe?
Homo Sapiens came to Europe from Africa, where it formed about 200 thousand years ago. In the chronological interval 80-60 thousand years ago, it penetrated into the Middle East, then began to populate Europe. He brought with him a new culture. But the exact place where this culture originated was not established. Certain parallels were drawn with Western Asia, with the Zagros, in the territory of Iraq and Iran. There, the most ancient tools of the Aurignacian type were found in caves. But then, in the course of our research, it turned out that the finds of the initial stage of the Upper Paleolithic from the Denisova Cave are not inferior in age to European ones, and may be older than European ones... And here an intrigue arose: the cultural manifestations that we recorded in Altai are dated back to about 50 thousand years This is almost 10 thousand years older than in Western Europe. Indeed, we have a unique culture, technologically and cognitively advanced. Various decorations made from animal teeth and ostrich egg shells have been found. This material was imported to us from Mongolia or Transbaikalia. It is too characteristic behavior of a person of modern physical appearance. We could not even imagine that the finds recent years will change this whole picture so much. In 2008, we discovered a phalanx of a girl’s finger in Denisova Cave. Now she is widely known, even famous. The scientific director of our institute, Academician Anatoly Panteleevich Derevyanko, sent this phalanx to the famous paleogeneticist Professor Svante Pääbo at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig. And a very interesting result was obtained. Firstly, it turned out that the anthropological remains from Denisova Cave are extremely well preserved in paleogenetic terms. Secondly, the sequenced genome from this sample showed that it does not belong to a Neanderthal or Homo Sapiens, but to a completely new ancient population, previously unknown to science.
- Was it a shock?
Of course, shock, even shock. We could assume anything, but not that some kind of special kind hominin. Or subspecies is a special question. Let anthropologists decide, we will listen to them carefully and draw our conclusions. But the fact that this is a completely new ancient population unknown to science has become obvious. And then many things fell into place. As archaeologists, we have seen that in its manifestations this culture must belong to Homo Sapiens.
- Do you have any specific finds in mind?
We then found a chloritolite bracelet. This is a rare stone, and not local. Its location has been established - Rudny Altai, 250 km west of Denisova Cave. The stone is not just beautiful, depending on the lighting it changes its color. This is clearly an exclusive product that belonged to a person with a certain status in society. Traceological examination showed that the decoration was composite, with a hole made in it. We assumed that there was a ring attached to it on the leather strap. Two years later, our hypothesis was confirmed - we found a marble ring. But the most important thing is the technical techniques that were used in the manufacture of these items. Pebbles were taken as a basis and polished. It was given a flat shape. Then a hole was drilled in the middle. Then it was expanded with a rasp type tool. And an object in the shape of a ring or bracelet was formed. Then it was polished, etc. Taken together, all these techniques used by ancient man have been known to science since the end of the Upper Paleolithic era - no older than 20 thousand years. And their mass use dates back to the Neolithic era, after 8 thousand years. The bracelet and ring were discovered in a layer that is older than 40 thousand years. It is now dated between 40 and 50 thousand years ago. At first we thought that this was the work of Homo Sapiens, who already possessed quite complex technologies. In addition, bone needles with an eye were found. And this year we discovered a needle about 8 cm long. There is no analogue to it. In size, it is twice as large as similar items known not only here, but also at other sites of the early Upper Paleolithic. The point is not that we found the largest needle, but the use of advanced technology. I repeat: this man was not inferior in his skills to Homo Sapiens - that’s what’s important.
- But at the same time he was not Homo Sapiens?
It turned out that this is a completely new population, which light hand A.P. Derevianko was named Homo sapiens altatensis (Altai Homo sapiens). Or according to the place of discovery - Denisovan man, Denisovan. Just like Neanderthal man got his name from Neanderthal Valley. The name has become quite firmly established in scientific literature, popular literature, and the mass media. Now we already know for sure that Denisovan man lived in the cave for quite a long time. We can say with absolute confidence that the human culture of the Upper Paleolithic was not brought to the south of Siberia from Africa, Europe or other territories. It was formed on a local basis.
What is the importance of a single section - under layer 11 with the remains of the Early Upper Paleolithic, where a bracelet, bone needles, various jewelry, and Aurignacian stone tools were found, lies a thickness of cultural layers of the Middle Paleolithic era. And we traditionally believed that they must belong to Neanderthals. But now we know for sure that the bearer of this Middle Paleolithic culture was a Denisovan.
Back in the 80s. last century, a tooth from the lower cultural layer 22 of the early stage of the Middle Paleolithic was discovered in Denisova Cave. The anthropologists who worked with him, including our outstanding scientist Valery Pavlovich Alekseev, studied this tooth in detail, but could not unambiguously determine who it belonged to. He combined the morphological features of both Homo Sapiens and Neanderthals. Paleogenetic analysis has now shown that this tooth belongs to a Denisovan. And Denisovan has a very interesting morphology. Despite the advanced culture, in terms of physical anthropology, his remains are quite archaic and have common features both with Neanderthals and even with more ancient forms. We can say that here, in Altai, in the Denisova Cave, for many tens of thousands of years, starting from the Middle Paleolithic era, for at least 280 thousand years, the evolution of the Denisovans and the gradual formation of the Upper Paleolithic culture took place. That is, it can be argued that Altai is one of the centers of formation of human culture with a modern physical appearance.
- Where did the common features with Neanderthals come from?
Paleogenetic analysis showed that Denisovans had close contact with Neanderthals. Today in Altai, both in the Denisova Cave, and in the Okladnikov Cave, which is located 100 km to the north, and in the Chagyrskaya Cave, which is located 200 km northwest of the Denisova Cave, the remains of Neanderthals of the same period have been discovered. This is the easternmost area where Neanderthals lived. Paleogenetic analysis showed that Denisovans and Neanderthals entered into close relationships, and an exchange of genetic material occurred, the so-called inbreeding. Of course, the general role in the formation of a person with a modern physical appearance belongs to the African Homo Sapiens. But now it is known for sure that the Eurasian modern population in its genome has from 2 to 4% of the Neanderthal genome, and modern inhabitants of the Southern Hemisphere - the indigenous population of Australia, the islands of Melanesia and the Philippines - carry 3-6% of the Denisovans genome, that is, both Neanderthals and Denisovans contributed to the formation of modern physical humans appearance And many scientists say that if there had not been this inbreeding, modern humanity would have a less strong immune system than it does now.
- So there was natural selection?
This played a certain role in human evolution. The history of Neanderthals here is also very interesting. If the cultural, genetic and biological roots of the Denisovans have an autochthonous basis, then the Neanderthals in Altai were aliens. Most likely, they came here approximately 60-50 thousand years ago. Before this, the eastern limit of the distribution of Neanderthals was middle Asia, territory of modern Uzbekistan. This is evidenced, in particular, by the famous find of the late 1930s. the then young researcher A.P. Okladnikov - the remains of a teenager’s skeleton in the Teshik-Tash cave. When Homo Sapiens mastered the territory of Eurasia and moved from the Middle East, it is possible that he displaced the Neanderthals from the territory of the western part Central Asia. And they migrated eastward to Altai. Here they met the local population - the Denisovans.
-Who found this needle?
I am often asked this question. I'll tell you this: it would be wrong and unfair to single out a specific person. We know who found her - he is a wonderful specialist. But at the excavation site where this unprecedented discovery was made, two of our young researchers, two charming girls, worked. One of them found this needle. And praising one at the expense of the other is an ignoble thing. We have a large team, and this is the result of our common work.
- Now, more about the needle itself, please.
Firstly, it demonstrates the fairly high technological skills of the Denisovans, the bearers of this culture. Secondly, it demonstrates the skills of sewing clothes and making shoes. It was most likely made from the bone of a large bird, the size of a swan, or perhaps from the so-called slate bone of an ungulate limb. This will be shown by further laboratory studies of the find. Similar needles with an eye were found in Denisova Cave and other European monuments. But this is the first time a bone needle of this size, about 8 cm, has been discovered. Now we can say that this is apparently the oldest such product known today in archaeology. It was found in sediments about 50 thousand years old, completely intact and intact. This is very important, since it testifies not only to the perfection of the methods of its manufacture, but also to the fairly high level of excavation technology that we are carrying out in the Denisova Cave and at other Altai monuments.
That is, the modern methodology of our excavations guarantees maximum safety of ancient artifacts. In the laboratories of our institute we will conduct a comprehensive study of the needle and other finds. Let's extract as much information as possible. At the end of the field season, Thomas Higham, head of the radiocarbon dating laboratory at the University of Oxford, came to our expedition. He took samples to determine a more precise age of this find.
- What is the path of the found artifact from the cave to the laboratory?
Any find must undergo a thorough comprehensive analysis. All artifacts and bone remains discovered in the cultural layer of the cave are first recorded in place, photographed, described, and plotted. Then all the exposed soil goes to the river bank, where it is washed. Then the washed substrate needs to be dried, sifted into fractions, sorted through the fine fraction, and extracted micromaterial from it. Then all the material is sent to the specialists for initial determination. Many samples are specially packaged for further laboratory processing. We send them to many institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences and leading foreign centers. Moreover, the location of any new find in the cave can be correlated with finds from previous years. For this, we have a 3D model of the cave, which was made by employees of the Institute of the History of Natural Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences under the leadership of famous cosmonaut and writer Yu.M. Baturina
You obviously have to collaborate with a large number of specialists from various fields of knowledge.
Of course, we try to attract a variety of specialists and, what is important, we always find a response from them. The Institute works with archaeologists nuclear physics, Institute of Geophysics, Institute of Geology, Institute of Cytology and Genetics are the leading institutes of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. I don’t want to say banal words, but really only an interdisciplinary approach produces serious scientific results.
- You are now the director of the Institute of Archeology and Ethnography of the SB RAS. What tasks do you consider the most important?
I only replaced A.P. in this post a year ago. Derevianko. Anatoly Panteleevich is the scientific director of our institute, the inspirer and organizer of all our scientific victories. We have excellent continuity and talented young employees. We have a great shift. I talk about this with pleasure. The more we work in Denisova Cave and other archaeological sites, the more results we get, the more new tasks we face. They need to be solved at a qualitatively new scientific level. Our youth are capable of this. Therefore, our institute and our research have a future.
- Are you expecting any other important finds in Denisova Cave?
We wait. When sequencing the Denisovan genome, our paleogenetics colleagues established the presence in it of up to 17% of the genome of an archaic hominin not yet known to science. It is possible that it will soon be discovered. This is a very interesting, I would say, intriguing task that has been set for both anthropologists and archaeologists. Today's task. Work is currently underway in this direction.
Interviewed by Olga Belenitskaya. Magazine "In the World of Science"