§ 53. Features of the geographical envelope

Remember

• How did the ancient atmosphere of the Earth differ in the composition of gases from the modern one? Are living organisms evenly distributed in the biosphere? Where are they most?

Geographical envelope- past and present. The geographic envelope was formed gradually as a result of a long and complex interaction of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. In its development, three main stages can be distinguished.

Table 9

The formation and development of the geographic envelope requires a large amount of energy. Where does it come from? There are two such sources. Most of the energy comes from the Sun. This is the main engine of all natural processes. Another source is the Earth's internal heat.

The uniqueness of the geographical envelope. The geographical envelope is very thin. But its role on the planet is not determined by its size. Only in this thin shell are there conditions for life. This is where people live and work. There are no such shells on any planet in the Solar System, and perhaps in our entire Galaxy.

The geographical shell is very complex. You already know that it is not uniform vertically. There is a clear sequence in the distribution of gaseous, liquid and solid substances in it: the denser the substance, the lower it is located.

But the geographic envelope is also heterogeneous horizontally. It consists of territorial complexes of different sizes.

Questions and tasks

1. What are the stages in the development of the geographical envelope?
2. What energy sources account for the formation and development of the geographic envelope?
3. Name the features of the geographic envelope.

- this is a complex shell of the globe, where they touch and mutually penetrate and interact with each other, and. the shell within its boundaries almost coincides with the biosphere.

The mutual penetration into each other of the gas, water, living and living shells that make up the geographical shell of the Earth and their interaction determines the integrity of the geographical shell. There is a continuous circulation and exchange of substances and energy in it. Each shell of the Earth, developing according to its own laws, experiences the influence of other shells and, in turn, exerts its own influence on them.

The influence of the biosphere on the atmosphere is associated with photosynthesis, which results in intensive gas exchange between them and the regulation of gases in the atmosphere. Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and release oxygen into it, which is necessary for breathing for all living beings. Thanks to the atmosphere, the Earth's surface does not overheat during the day by the sun's rays and does not cool down too much at night, which creates conditions for the existence of living individuals. The biosphere also influences the hydrosphere, since organisms have a significant impact on. They take from the water the substances they need, especially calcium, to build skeletons, shells, and shells. The hydrosphere is a living environment for many creatures, and water is essential for many life processes of plants and animals. The impact of organisms is especially noticeable in its upper part. The remains of dead plants and animals accumulate in it and are formed of organic origin. Organisms participate not only in the formation of rocks, but also in their destruction - in: They secrete acids that act on rocks, destroying them with roots penetrating into cracks. Dense, hard rocks turn into loose sedimentary (gravel, pebbles).

Conditions for education are being prepared. Rocks appeared in the lithosphere and began to be used by humans. Knowledge of the law of integrity of the geographical envelope is of great importance practical significance. If economic activity a person does not take it into account, it often leads to undesirable consequences.

A change in one of the geographic shells affects all others. An example is the era of the great glaciation in.

The increase in land surface led to the onset of colder weather, which led to the formation of thick snow and ice that covered vast areas in the north and, and this in turn led to changes in the flora and fauna and to changes in soils.

The modern geographical envelope is the result of its long development, during which it continuously became more complex. Scientists distinguish 3 stages of its development.

Stage I lasted 3 billion years and was called prebiogenic. During it, only the simplest organisms existed. They took little part in its development and formation. The atmosphere at this stage was characterized by a low content of free oxygen and high - carbon dioxide.

Stage II lasted about 570 million years. It was characterized by the leading role of living beings in the development and formation of the geographical envelope. Living beings had a huge influence on all its components. Rocks of organic origin accumulated, the composition of water and the atmosphere changed, where the oxygen content increased, as photosynthesis occurred in green plants, and the carbon dioxide content decreased. At the end of this stage a man appeared.

Stage III- modern. It began 40 thousand years ago and is characterized by the fact that man begins to actively influence different parts of the geographical envelope. Therefore, it depends on man whether it will exist at all, since man on Earth cannot live and develop in isolation from it.

In addition to integrity, the general patterns of the geographical shell include its rhythm, that is, the periodicity and repetition of the same phenomena, and.

Geographical zonation manifests itself in a certain shift from the poles. Zoning is based on various receipts heat and light onto the earth's surface, and they are already reflected on all other components, and above all the soils and the animal world.

Zoning can be vertical and latitudinal.

Vertical zoning- a natural change in natural complexes both in height and in depth. For mountains, the main reason for this zonation is the change in the amount of moisture with height, and for the depths of the ocean - heat and sunlight. The concept of “vertical zoning” is much broader than “,” which is valid only in relation to land. IN latitudinal zonality distinguish the largest division of the geographical envelope -

Geospheres of the Earth- more or less concentric layers covering the entire Earth and possessing characteristic physical, structural, physicochemical, chemical and biological properties. Geospheres are divided into external and internal. The external ones include the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and earth's crust. The inner geospheres include the mantle and core. The Earth's crust, atmosphere and hydrosphere are part of the biosphere - a complex discontinuous shell of the Earth, which is the habitat of biota - the living matter of the planet.

The space in which the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere interpenetrate and interact is called geographic envelope. The geographic shell is a single material system that has a number of unique features: in it the radiant energy of the Sun is converted into thermal energy; water is simultaneously in three states - liquid, solid and gaseous; plants and animals arose and developed in it, soils were formed, sedimentary rocks were formed, at a certain stage of development a person appeared, a human society was formed, constantly interacting with the surrounding nature.

The geographical envelope is developing and has its own patterns in development:

1. Integrity- a change in one of its components inevitably causes a change in all the others.

2. Cycle of matter and energy. The circulation of substances ensures the repetition of the same processes and phenomena with a limited volume of the original substance.

3. Rhythm- repeatability of similar phenomena over time. There are rhythms of different durations - daily, annual (seasonal), intra-century.

4. Zoning- a natural change in all components of the geographic shell and the shell itself in the direction from the equator to the poles. The main reasons for zonality are the shape of the Earth and its position relative to the Sun, and the prerequisite is the incidence of sunlight on the surface at an angle that gradually decreases on both sides of the equator. Differentiation of the geographical envelope according to zonal characteristics is expressed primarily in the division into geographical zones and zones and altitudinal belts and zones.

In the 80s of the XX century. The concept of “ geological environment", which, according to a number of scientists, is part of the geographical envelope. It corresponds to the very top earth's crust and acts as the mineral basis of the biosphere. The author of this term E.M.Sergeev(1979) and his followers understand the geological environment as the upper part of the lithosphere, which is under the influence of human engineering and economic activities. The upper limit of the geological environment in this understanding is the relief surface characteristic of a specific territory. The lower boundary of the geological environment depends on the depth of human penetration into the earth’s crust during various types his activities.

According to another point of view, the concept of “geological environment” should be considered in a broader sense: the geological environment is the space where geological processes take place. Regardless of the place of its origin (in the deep depths or on earth's surface) endogenous and exogenous processes, interacting with each other and with external geospheres, carry out various geological transformations on a huge scale. Under certain conditions, the entire mass of rocks and minerals appears in the geological environment, organic communities exist, geological forces operate that transform the face of the Earth, and catastrophic, spontaneous geological phenomena occur.

6.2 Atmosphere: structure, origin, environmental functions

Atmosphere- this is a gas shell that does not have a clearly defined upper boundary and exists due to the gravitational attraction of the Earth. The composition at the Earth's surface is as follows: nitrogen - 78.1%, oxygen - 20.95%, argon - 0.93% and in small fractions of a percent carbon dioxide, hydrogen, helium, neon and other gases. At an altitude of 20-25 km there is a layer of ozone, which protects living organisms from short-wave (ultraviolet) solar radiation, which has a detrimental effect on living organisms.

Based on the sharp change in temperature in the atmosphere, several layers (spheres) are distinguished. The boundaries between them are called pauses (tropopause, stratopause, mesopause). In the lowest layer - troposphere- the temperature, as the altitude increases from the earth's surface, drops to -55 °C at the pole and -75 °C at the equator. It contains 4/5 of the total mass of the atmosphere. It is rich in nitrogen and oxygen, saturated with water vapor and carbon dioxide. Important weather processes take place here and clouds form. The temperature in the troposphere decreases with altitude by an average of 6 °C per kilometer. The troposphere extends to an altitude of 12-15 km and is separated from the stratosphere by the tropopause.

IN stratosphere There is a sharp increase in temperature, reaching 0 °C at an altitude of 55 km, where the stratopause occurs. In the stratosphere, the amount of nitrogen and oxygen decreases, and the content of hydrogen, helium and other light gases increases. It contains ozone layer.

The next layer of the atmosphere is mesosphere- located in the range of 55 -95 km above the Earth's surface. The temperature there continues to fall with increasing altitude and reaches -70, -80 °C at mesopause.

IN thermosphere the temperature rises, reaching 1200 0C at an altitude of 400 km. It is often called the ionosphere, since gas molecules are ionized by cosmic radiation, that is, they are deprived of upper electrons and therefore have a positive charge. Like any ionized gas, air in the thermosphere is a good conductor of electricity. In addition, the thermosphere has a remarkable property - it reflects radio waves, which makes long-distance communication on Earth possible.

Above the thermosphere is located exosphere, which is a transition region between the atmosphere and interplanetary space. Its characteristic features are the predominance of gases in the atomic state and very low density. Here the lightest gases leave the atmosphere and disperse into outer space.

The modern atmosphere is the result of a long evolutionary development. It arose as a result of the combined actions of geological factors and the vital activity of organisms. Primary atmosphere ( proto-atmosphere) at the earliest protoplanetary stage, i.e. older than 4.2 billion years, could consist of a mixture of methane, ammonia and carbon dioxide. As a result mantle degassing and active flowing on the earth's surface weathering processes water vapor, carbon compounds in the form of CO 2 and CO, sulfur and its compounds, as well as strong halogen acids - HCl, HF, HI and boric acid began to enter the atmosphere, which were supplemented by methane, ammonia, hydrogen, argon and some in the atmosphere other noble gases. This primordial atmosphere was extremely subtle.

Over time, the gas composition of the primary atmosphere began to transform under the influence of weathering processes of rocks protruding on the earth's surface, the activity of cyanobacteria and blue-green algae, volcanic processes and the action of sunlight. This led to the decomposition of methane into hydrogen and carbon dioxide, and ammonia into nitrogen and hydrogen; Carbon dioxide, which slowly sank to the earth's surface, and nitrogen began to accumulate in the secondary atmosphere. Thanks to the vital activity of blue-green algae, oxygen began to be produced in the process of photosynthesis, which, however, at first was mainly spent on the oxidation of atmospheric gases and then rocks. At the same time, ammonia, oxidized to molecular nitrogen, began to accumulate intensively in the atmosphere. Methane and carbon monoxide were oxidized to carbon dioxide. Sulfur and hydrogen sulfide were oxidized to SO 2 and SO 3, which, due to their high mobility and lightness, were quickly removed from the atmosphere. Thus, the atmosphere of restorative, as it was in the Archean and Early Proterozoic, gradually turned into oxidative.

Carbon dioxide entered the atmosphere both as a result of methane oxidation and as a result of degassing of the mantle and weathering of rocks. A significant part of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere was dissolved in the hydrosphere, in which it was used by hydrobionts to build their shells and biogenically converted into carbonates. Subsequently, thick strata of chemogenic and organogenic carbonates were formed from them.

Oxygen entered the atmosphere from three sources. For a long time, starting from the origin of the Earth, it was released during the process of degassing of the mantle and was mainly spent on oxidative processes. Another source of oxygen was the photodissociation of water vapor by hard ultraviolet solar radiation. The third is the processes of photosynthesis. Stabilization of the oxygen content in the atmosphere occurred from the moment when plants reached land - approximately 450 million years ago.

Ecological functions of the atmosphere are to ensure the conditions:

Life activity of organisms;

Functioning of the hydrosphere, lithosphere and soil;

Climate formation;

The occurrence of extreme events and natural Disasters;

Human development.

Along with environmental factors, the atmosphere also has geological functions. The geological role of the atmosphere lies in the fact that its structure, elemental composition, state and interaction with the lithosphere, soil cover, hydrosphere, as well as the processes occurring in it, are determined by the speed and scale of the impact on the surface part of the lithosphere of physicochemical factors that determine the intensity and the rate of exposure to agents of weathering, erosion, transport and accumulation of sedimentary material. The atmosphere is an important source of substances for the formation of soils, rocks and minerals. The atmosphere is not only a converter of solar energy, but also serves as a source of building material (carbon monoxide) for living organisms.

6.3 Hydrosphere: structure, origin, ecological functions

Under hydrosphere imply a surface shell consisting of water from seas and oceans, surface bodies of land, temporary and permanent watercourses, and solid water in the form of snow and ice. Along with the surface, there is also an underground hydrosphere, which includes groundwater and underground water, including artesian water.

Oceans and seas cover almost 71% of the Earth's surface, and together with water bodies of land, which include glaciers, lakes, reservoirs, swamps, ponds, almost 3/4 of the Earth's surface is covered with water. High heat capacity of water and significant potential energy its numerous phase transitions, together with the huge area of ​​the water surface, are of great importance for the thermal and water regimes of the Earth. The hydrosphere together with the atmosphere are decisive factor in soil formation and the formation of the Earth's vegetation cover and, therefore, determine the landscape appearance of the planet. The world's oceans are global heat accumulator. It transforms solar energy, accumulates it, and if necessary, slowly cooling, releases part of the heat into the atmosphere. Thus, the hydrosphere plays the most important and very ambiguous role in thermoregulation of the planet.

The ecological functions of the World Ocean arise from its interaction with the atmosphere and the upper part of the lithosphere, which leads to extensive gas exchange, contributes to the emergence of climate and weather conditions, determines the distribution of temperature, salinity and density of the World Ocean, and causes surface and deep hydrodynamics. All this plays a leading role in biota distribution and determines the vital activity of organisms, transportation and accumulation of matter.

Geological role of the hydrosphere is that it, as one of the most important exogenous factors, transforms the earth's surface, participates in the formation of relief, transports substances and chemical compounds in suspended and dissolved states, and participates in the accumulation of sedimentary material.

The ecological functions of the hydrosphere are ensured by continuous water circulation. Its movement occurs as a result of mechanical movement - water flows in rivers, currents in the ocean; as a result of a change in phase composition, water evaporates and enters the atmosphere through diffusion and convective flows. The latter are characteristic of soils and rocks. In the northern regions, a very rare method of moving water by sublimation is observed. Snow (the solid phase of water), evaporating, immediately turns into steam and enters the atmosphere. Thus, there is a continuous closed process of water circulation on Earth, called the cycle . There are small, large and intracontinental gyres included in it.

The water that evaporates from the surface of the ocean mostly condenses and returns back as precipitation ( small or oceanic gyre) and is partially transported to land by air currents. Atmospheric precipitation that falls on land, seeping into the soil and aeration zone, creates reserves of soil moisture. Atmospheric precipitation that penetrates deeper forms underground water: groundwater, formation water and water of deep horizons. Part of the precipitation flows over the earth's surface, forming streams and rivers, and the rest evaporates again. Eventually, the water brought to land by air currents reaches the ocean again, completing great water cycle on the globe. More can be isolated from the large cycle local, or intra-continental, cycle, in which water that has evaporated from the land surface returns to land in the form of precipitation

Ideas about origin of the hydrosphere are based on the existence of the following sources of water: degassing of molten magma, emissions of water in the form of steam from volcanoes and “black” smokers. Much depended on the composition of the primary substance that formed the proto-Earth. Among the substances that formed our planet, in addition to the meteorite-type substance, there must have been a comet-type substance, i.e. containing ice, metals and organics. In other words, the primordial Earth already had a sufficient amount of water in the form of ice. A purely cometary version of the origin of the oceans does not yet have sufficient grounds, since the existing ocean contains too many traces of degassing of the Earth’s interior.

Introduction

1. Geographical envelope as material system, its boundaries, structure and qualitative differences from other earthly shells

2. The circulation of matter and energy in the geographic envelope

3. Basic patterns of the geographical shell: unity and integrity of the system, rhythm of phenomena, zonality, azonality

4. Differentiation of the geographical envelope. Geographical zones and natural areas

5. Altitudinal zone mountains in different geographical zones

6. Physico-geographical zoning as one of the most important problems physical geography. System of taxonomic units in physical geography

The geographic envelope of the Earth (synonyms: natural-territorial complexes, geosystems, geographic landscapes, epigeosphere) is the sphere of interpenetration and interaction of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Has complex spatial differentiation. The vertical thickness of the geographic shell is tens of kilometers. The integrity of the geographic envelope is determined by the continuous exchange of energy and mass between the land and the atmosphere, the World Ocean and organisms. Natural processes in the geographic shell are carried out due to the radiant energy of the Sun and the internal energy of the Earth. Within the geographical shell, humanity arose and is developing, drawing resources from the shell for its existence and influencing it.

The geographic envelope was first defined by P.I. Brounov back in 1910 as “the outer shell of the Earth.” This is the most the hard part our planet, where the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere touch and interpenetrate. Only here is the simultaneous and stable existence of matter in solid, liquid and gaseous states possible. In this shell, the absorption, transformation and accumulation of the radiant energy of the Sun occurs; only within its boundaries did the emergence and spread of life become possible, which, in turn, was a powerful factor in the further transformation and complication of the epigeosphere.

The geographic envelope is characterized by integrity, determined by the connections between its components, and uneven development in time and space.

The unevenness of development over time is expressed in the directed rhythmic (periodic - daily, monthly, seasonal, annual, etc.) and non-rhythmic (episodic) changes inherent in this shell. As a consequence of these processes, the different ages of individual parts of the geographical envelope, the inheritance of the course of natural processes, and the preservation of relict features in existing landscapes are formed. Knowledge of the basic patterns of development of the geographical envelope allows in many cases to predict natural processes.

The doctrine of geographical systems (geosystems) is one of the main fundamental achievements geographical science. It is still actively being developed and discussed. Because this teaching not only has a deep theoretical meaning as a key basis for the targeted accumulation and systematization of factual material in order to obtain new knowledge. Great and his practical significance, because that's exactly what it is systems approach to consider infrastructure geographical objects lies at the basis of the geographical zoning of territories, without which it is impossible to identify and solve, either locally, let alone globally, any problems relating to one degree or another to the interaction of man, society and nature: neither environmental, nor environmental management, nor in general the optimization of the relationships of mankind And natural environment.

Purpose test work is to consider the geographical envelope from the perspective modern ideas. To achieve the goal of the work, a number of tasks should be outlined and solved, the main of which will be:

1 consideration of the geographical shell as a material system;

2 consideration of the main patterns of the geographical envelope;

3 determination of the reasons for the differentiation of the geographical envelope;

4 consideration of physical-geographical zoning and determination of the system of taxonomic units in physical geography.

The dynamics of the geographic shell depend entirely on the energy of the earth's interior in the zone of the outer core and asthenosphere and on the energy of the Sun. Tidal interactions of the Earth–Moon system also play a certain role.

The projection of intraplanetary processes onto the earth's surface and their subsequent interaction with solar radiation is ultimately reflected in the formation of the main components of the geographical shell of the upper crust, relief, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. Current state geographical shell is the result of its long evolution, which began with the emergence of planet Earth.

Scientists distinguish three stages in the development of the geographical envelope: the first, the longest (about 3 billion years), was characterized by the existence of the simplest organisms; the second stage lasted about 600 million years and was marked by the appearance of higher forms of living organisms; the third stage is modern. It began about 40 thousand years ago. Its peculiarity is that people are increasingly beginning to influence the development of the geographical envelope, and, unfortunately, negatively (destruction of the ozone layer, etc.).

The geographic envelope is characterized by a complex composition and structure. The main material components of the geographic shell are the rocks that make up the earth’s crust (with their shape - relief), air masses, water accumulations, soil cover and biocenoses; In polar latitudes and high mountains, the role of ice accumulations is significant. Main energy components - gravitational energy, internal heat of the planet, radiant energy of the Sun and energy of cosmic rays. Despite the limited set of components, their combinations can be very diverse; it depends on the number of components included in the combination and on their internal variations (since each component is also a very complex natural complex), and most importantly, on the nature of their interaction and interconnections, i.e., on the geographical structure.

A.A. Grigoriev placed the upper limit of the geographic envelope (GE) at an altitude of 20-26 km above sea level, in the stratosphere, below the layer of maximum ozone concentration. Ultraviolet radiation, harmful to living things, is intercepted by the ozone screen.

Atmospheric ozone is formed mainly above 25 km. It enters lower layers due to turbulent mixing of air and vertical movements of air masses. The density of O 3 is low near the earth's surface and in the troposphere. Its maximum is observed at altitudes of 20-26 km. General content ozone X in a vertical column of air ranges from 1 to 6 mm, if it is brought to normal pressure (1013.2 mbar) at t = 0 o C. The value of X is called the reduced thickness of the ozone layer or the total amount of ozone.

Below the border ozone screen air movement is observed due to the interaction of the atmosphere with land and ocean. The lower boundary of the geographic shell, according to Grigoriev, passes where tectonic forces cease to act, that is, at a depth of 100-120 km from the surface of the lithosphere, along the upper part of the subcrustal layer, which greatly influences the formation of the relief.

S.V. Kalesnik places the upper limit of G.O. just like A.A. Grigoriev, at the level of the ozone screen, and the lower one - at the level of occurrence of the foci of ordinary earthquakes, that is, at a depth of no more than 40-45 km and no less than 15-20 km. This depth is the so-called zone of hypergenesis (Greek hyper - above, from above, genesis - origin). This is a zone of sedimentary rocks that arise during the process of weathering, alteration of igneous and metamorphic rocks of primary origin.

The views of D.L. differ from these ideas about the boundaries of civil defense. Armanda. D.L. Armand's geographical sphere includes the troposphere, hydrosphere and the entire earth's crust (silicate sphere of geochemists), located under the oceans at a depth of 8-18 km and under high mountains at a depth of 49-77 km. In addition to the geographic sphere itself, D.L. Armand proposes to distinguish between the “Great Geographical Sphere”, including in it the stratosphere, extending to a height of up to 80 km above the ocean, and the eclogite sphere or sima, that is, the entire thickness of the lithosphere, with the lower horizon of which (700 -1000 km) are associated with deep-focus earthquakes.

The evolution of the crust on Earth led to the formation of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. At the same time, a planetary natural complex was formed, the four components of which, that is, the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere, are in constant interaction and exchange matter and energy. Each component of the complex has its own chemical composition, is distinguished by its unique properties. They can have a solid, liquid or gaseous state, their own organization of matter, patterns of development, and can be organic or inorganic.

By interacting with each other, these natural components influence each other and acquire new properties. Thus, on the earth’s surface, during the long-term interaction of the spheres, a new shell was formed, which had its own specific characteristics, which was called the geographic shell. The doctrine of the geographical envelope began to take shape at the beginning of the 20th century. The geographic envelope is the main object of physical geography.

The geographical envelope has a peculiar spatial structure. It is three-dimensional and spherical. This is the area of ​​most active interaction natural ingredients, in which the greatest intensity of various physical and geographical processes and phenomena is observed. At some distance up and down from the earth's surface, the interaction of the components weakens and then disappears altogether. This happens gradually and the boundaries of the geographical envelope - fuzzy. The ozone layer at an altitude of 25-30 km is often taken as the upper limit. The lower boundary of the geographic shell is often drawn along the Mohorovicic section, that is, along the asthenosphere, which is the base of the earth’s crust.

The components of the geographic shell are composed of substances different composition in different states. They are delimited by a system of active surfaces where matter interacts and energy flows are transformed. These include: coastal zone, atmospheric and oceanic fronts, periglacial zones.

Features of the geographic shell:

1. The geographical envelope is distinguished by a very high complexity of composition and a varied state of matter;

2. Life is concentrated in it and human society exists;

3. All physical and geographical processes in this shell occur due to the solar and internal energy of the Earth;

4. All types of energy enter the shell, are transformed in it and are partially conserved.

There are four main properties of the geographic shell.

1. Rhythm associated with solar activity, the movement of the Earth around the Sun, the movement of the Earth and Moon around the Sun, solar system around the center of the galaxy.

2. The circulation of substances, which is divided into circulations of air masses and water flows, which form circulations of air and moisture, circulations mineral substance and lithospheric gyres, biological and biochemical gyres.

3. Integrity and unity, which are manifested in the fact that a change in one component natural complex inevitably causes a change in everyone else and the entire system as a whole. In addition, changes that occur in one place are reflected on the entire shell, and sometimes on some part of it in another place. The unity and integrity of the geographical shell is ensured by the system of movement of matter and energy.

A very important feature of the geographical shell is its ability to maintain its basic properties throughout the history of its existence. Over millions of years, the location of the continents on Earth, the composition of the atmosphere, and the formation and development of the biosphere have changed. At the same time, the essence of the geographical shell remained, as a contact zone between geospheres, where endogenous and exogenous forces interact. Its main properties have also been preserved: the presence of water in three states - liquid, solid and gaseous, the presence of stable boundaries between the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, the constancy of radiation and heat balances, the constancy of the salt composition of the World Ocean, etc. Therefore, the geographical envelope is called geostat, that is, a system that is capable of automatically maintaining a certain state of the natural environment. In historical terms, the geographical envelope is self-organizing system, which brings it closer to biological systems.

If you mentally cut the geographical envelope from the top to lower limit, then it turns out that the lower tier is represented by dense matter of the lithosphere, and the upper tiers are represented by lighter matter of the hydrosphere and atmosphere. This arrangement of the geographical shell is the result of the evolution of the Earth, which was accompanied by differentiation of matter: with the release of dense matter in the center of the Earth and lighter matter along the periphery.

Many physical and geographical phenomena on the earth's surface are distributed in the form of stripes extended along parallels, or at some angle to them. This property of geographical phenomena is called zonality.

All components of the geographic envelope bear the imprint of the influence of the world law of zonation. Zoning is noted for: climatic indicators, plant groups, soil types. The zonality of physical and geographical phenomena is based on the pattern of solar radiation entering the Earth, the arrival of which decreases from the equator to the poles.

Based on the combination of heat and moisture entering different areas of the earth, geographic zones are formed. A number of geographical zones are distinguished. They are internally heterogeneous, which is primarily associated with zonal atmospheric circulation and moisture transfer. On this basis, sectors are identified. As a rule, there are 3 of them: two oceanic (western and eastern) and one continental.

Sector- this is a geographical pattern, which is expressed in a change in the main natural indicators along longitude: from the oceans to the interior of the continents. All zonal phenomena are determined by endogenous energy. Zoning patterns are violated by the orographic conditions of the territory.

Altitudinal zone– this is a natural change in natural indicators from sea level to mountain tops. It is determined by changes in climate with altitude, primarily by changes in the amount of heat and moisture. Altitudinal zonation was first described by A. Humboldt.

Hierarchy of geosystems

Hierarchy of the natural geosystem. Natural geosystem– a historically established set of interconnected natural components, characterized by spatial and temporal organization, relative stability, and the ability to function as a single whole, producing a new substance. Geosystems can be formations of various dimensions.

Natural geosystems have a hierarchical structure. This means that all geosystems consist of several elements, and each geosystem is included as a structural element in larger ones.

There are three categories of geosystems (according to spatial dimensions): planetary(hundreds of million km 2) – the landscape envelope as a whole, continents and oceans, belts, zones; regional– physical-geographical countries, provinces, regions; local – (from several m2 to several thousand m2) areas, tracts, sub-urochishches, facies.

Each of these geosystemic taxa is characterized by certain cycles of matter and energy of a certain scale - large geological, biogeochemical, biological.

The landscape envelope obeys the law of the hierarchical organization of its constituent parts. Its structure involves natural geosystems of various spatiotemporal scales. From the largest and most durable formations, such as oceans and continents, to the small and highly variable. They are combined into a multi-stage system of taxa, called the hierarchy of natural geosystems. From the recognition of the fact of subordination of geosystems of different ranks comes the methodological rule of the triad, according to which each natural geosystem must be studied not only in itself, but also necessarily as breaking up into subordinate structural elements and at the same time as part of a higher natural unity.

Several options for taxonomic classification of natural geosystems have been proposed.