Chemistry
Vesalius's contribution to biology in brief. Andreas Vesalius: biography and contribution to medicine (photo). "On the structure of the human body"

Vesalius's contribution to biology in brief. Andreas Vesalius: biography and contribution to medicine (photo). "On the structure of the human body"

Few people can answer the question of what a humidifier is. This useful device helps increase the humidity in the room by saturating the air masses with droplets of moisture. If its level in the room is insufficient, then the person begins to feel uncomfortable.

Humidifier eliminates the problem of dry air masses

Insufficient air humidification worsens appearance skin, diseases of the respiratory organs, heart and kidneys appear. This problem comes up especially often in winter time, when many homes have heating appliances running on a regular basis. They evaporate moisture, making the air excessively dry.

It's easy to guess why a humidifier is needed. This unique device helps eliminate the problem of dry air masses in the house. Thanks to him, a person manages to avoid troubles associated with disruption of the vital functions of the body. Many people have long since lost their doubts about whether a humidifier is needed in an apartment, since they were able to appreciate its main advantages from personal experience.

Types of devices for air humidification

In the past, people often wondered how to humidify the air in their home. They had to make various devices that could at least slightly solve the problem of dryness in the room. Many families simply hung wet laundry in their rooms or placed containers of water near heating devices. This way they managed to humidify the air in the apartment without a humidifier. Today, these methods have long become obsolete. After all, special devices have appeared on sale that easily and quickly saturate air masses with moisture.

Exist different kinds humidifiers. The most popular ones include:

Traditional. Works on a cold evaporation humidification system. For the unit to function, a sufficient amount of clean water must be poured into a special tank. From the container it will subsequently flow to the evaporator element. The air masses will begin to be moistened as they are driven by the fan through the air purifier and humidifier for the home. A traditional humidifier is easy to operate. In addition, it manages to save energy even with constant use. If you place the device at a short distance from the heat source, it will be able to work more efficiently due to increased air circulation. Some models are also capable of destroying pathogenic microorganisms. The installed filters in the purifiers cope with this task. A family with small children should choose this type of equipment.
Steam. Having used such a device at least once, a person will no longer have the question of why a humidifier is needed. The device operates on the principle of hot evaporation. It uses two electrodes to heat the water poured into the tank. When it reaches the required temperature, it turns into steam. This is the best humidifier that can increase indoor humidity by up to 60%. Unlike traditional models, steam ones consume too much electricity, which can become a problem for residents.
Ultrasonic. This type of household humidifier is one of the most popular types of home appliances. Inside it, the liquid is converted into small particles, which are subsequently fixed in the air masses. A kind of clouds are formed from water and air, spreading throughout the room where the air humidifier for the apartment is installed. It can be used in children's rooms without fear, since the steam released from the device is not capable of burning the skin. In addition, some models are equipped with an antibacterial protection function, thanks to which the air at home is easily purified.

The essence of the operation of air humidifiers is the same, regardless of the type

There are other types of humidifiers. The essence of their work is the same. They differ from each other only in cost and the presence of certain additional functions.

Advantages and disadvantages of humidifiers

Each device has its own positive and negative qualities. After analyzing them, you can understand which humidifier is better for home use. Steam models boast the following advantages:

reliable protection against liquid boiling over;
high productivity;
excellent steam heating;
no need to replace filters and cartridges;
raising the humidity in the room for a short period of time;
variety of capacities;
lack of requirements for the quality of water used;
low cost.

This home humidifier has only one big drawback. It can cause burns on the skin due to the steam heating up too much. In addition, during its operation, the hissing of water is heard, which can be very distracting.

Traditional models of air humidifier are often considered when wondering which device is best to buy for a room.

They have the following advantages:

their operation does not involve heating water, so you don’t have to worry about getting burned by the steam;
consume several times less electricity than other types of air humidifiers;
clean air flows from contaminants and pathogenic bacteria;
have a relatively low cost.

When installing this air humidifier in an apartment, you need to be prepared for the fact that it will make unnecessary noise during operation. You should also prepare to change filters regularly. It's easy to understand what these removable elements are for. It is the filter that is responsible for high-quality air purification in a living room.

An ultrasonic humidifier is capable of filtering air masses

Ultrasonic models are among the best humidifiers due to the abundance of positive qualities:

release warm steam that does not cause burns upon contact;
do not make any distracting noise during operation;
provides not only humidification, but also high-quality filtration of air masses.

Inconveniences in working with a humidifier arise only because of the need to regularly change cartridges. In addition, the unit functions normally only on purified water that has been distilled. These models are also high in cost, which greatly affects the buyer’s choice of a humidifier for the home.

Criteria for choosing a device for home use

Before the purchase automatic technology, which humidifies the air in the room, you need to focus on the main criteria for choosing this device. Namely:

The area of the house that the device can serve. We choose a model of the volume that is suitable for a specific room.
Duration of operation without interruption. This indicator affects the water consumption of the device and the size of its reservoir tank.
Purpose of the device. First you need to find out what its varieties are. It also wouldn’t hurt to familiarize yourself with information about why it is needed in the house. For example, a steam model is well suited for small greenhouses, while ultrasonic devices should be purchased for spacious apartments where children and pets live.
Noise level. This criterion is reflected in the comfort of the residents of the house.
Energy consumption. The more energy an appliance uses, the higher your utility bills will be.
Function of maintaining a certain level of humidity. It will prevent too much moisture from forming, which will negatively affect the condition of furniture and floor coverings. Constantly maintaining a high level of humidity in the house will certainly lead to the formation of mold, which is then very difficult to get rid of.

Many buyers speak positively about the ultrasonic device, which helps maintain a sufficient level of humidity in the house.

Other types of equipment for moistening air masses also deserve attention. But they are much inferior to ultrasonic-type models.

Additional functions of humidifiers

Most devices have additional functions that provide high-quality humidification and purification of air flows circulating in a living space. You should definitely pay attention to them when choosing a suitable device for your home. The units boast the following useful features:
Air ionization. The most useful device is one that has this function. Special ionizers saturate the air with negatively contaminated ions. Thanks to them, the air masses are completely cleaned of dust and other contaminants.
Aromatization. It deprives residents of the need to look for other ways to create a pleasant atmosphere in the house. The device contains an aroma capsule that makes the air fragrant and fresh.
Ozonation. Using this function, you can fight pathogens that are present in the air. Ozone instantly damages the shell of pathogenic bacteria, causing them to die. Thanks to this, the procedure for disinfecting the room is carried out.

Ultraviolet. It is needed to destroy pathogenic microorganisms that can cause various diseases. This disinfection only affects the air that gets inside the device. He comes out of it completely cleansed.

It is worth paying attention to the fact that the number of functions of a particular model is reflected in its cost. To avoid unnecessary expenses, you should decide which additional options will be used during operation of the device, and which will not provide any practical benefit.

Manufacturers of humidifying devices and their cost

In household appliance stores you can see dozens of different devices for humidifying air flows in a residential area. When choosing them, the buyer should pay attention to the brand under which the model they like is produced. It is advisable to trust trusted manufacturers who have proven the high quality of their products.

The most popular brands of household appliances today are:

Boneco.
Air-O-Swiss.
Bork.

The quality of air humidifying devices from these manufacturers is excellent. But the price for this equipment is appropriate.

Budget buyers should take a closer look at models from such manufacturers:

Vitek.
Polaris.
Supra.

The products of these brands offered for sale do not have a large number of additional functions. However, they cope with their main task excellently.

Humidifying units perform very important work, which allows residents of the house to avoid serious health problems. Therefore, the choice of such a device should be approached responsibly. It is very important to evaluate all the main advantages and disadvantages of the model you like in order to understand whether it will be able to cope with the tasks that will be assigned to it for a long time.

Why are humidifiers needed? Every person has seen an advertisement for these miracle devices at least once. But not everyone has thought about the benefits of having such a device at home. What do these devices do? The answer is simple - they humidify the air. The best percentage of air humidity ranges from 40 to 60. In such a room, the person himself, his skin and all mucous membranes feel comfortable. It's easy to breathe in this room. Once the moisture in the air begins to evaporate, everything that was feeling good begins to suffer. This happens because the air begins to replenish the lack of moisture in all available ways: from freshly washed clothes hanging in the room, plants, an aquarium (if there is one) and, of course, from people. Everyone knows the truth that a person consists of 74% water. This percentage begins to rapidly decrease in a very dry room, worsening your health. The eyes and nasal cavity quickly dry out, discomfort appears, and the formation of microcracks makes it easier for viruses to enter the body. There is an urgent need to normalize humidity.

When is a humidifier needed? How to choose a device? This depends on many factors: the area of the room, the general humidity of the climate of the place of residence, the number of people constantly present in the perimeter, the presence of vegetation and aquariums, as well as the season of the year. Humidity is measured by a special device called a hygrometer. But in the age modern technologies There is no need to run around the shops looking for it. Just download the application to your smartphone - and now you know the result, what is the percentage of humidity in any room. Now it has become clear why air humidifiers are needed, but another question arises: how to choose a device? There are several types of these devices: ultrasonic, traditional, steam, multifunctional complexes. To understand which air humidifier is suitable for an apartment, you need to learn more about each type.

Ultrasonic

The principle of its operation is that the liquid falls on a constantly vibrating plate and is split into water splashes. These tiny drops form a “cloud” of steam, which is released into the room in portions, saturating the air with life-giving moisture. In other words, this principle of operation creates a kind of “fog” in the house. Quiet and efficient.

The released water suspension is completely safe for people and animals. It is cold, which eliminates the possibility of getting burned. An ultrasonic humidifier autonomously maintains the optimal level of humidity, working automatically (it turns on and off), so the question “How often should you turn on the humidifier?” disappears by itself. This device consumes less energy and is more compact than its competitors. The most visible drawback is the replaceable cartridge. It will have to be periodically replaced with a new one, otherwise the entire humidification process will be interrupted. Currently, this particular device is in great demand among citizens.

Traditional

It is the simplest in its design and principle of operation. Water is poured into a special tank and goes down to a tray, where, with the help of a fan and filter elements, it sucks in and humidifies the air. Compared to an ultrasonic device, this device is noisier, although it can only be heard in absolute silence. Also has replaceable filters. Its special highlight is that you can add aromatic oils to the tank and fill the house not only with life-giving moisture, but also with a wonderful fragrance.

Doing yoga and other relaxing procedures will be a complete pleasure. Such an air humidifier for an apartment would be an ideal, inexpensive option.

Steam

The operating principle and design resemble a boiling kettle. Water is heated inside the container, and at a certain moment it is released with a hot stream of steam. Exactly hot! Temperatures range from 52 to 63 degrees Celsius. Where should you place the humidifier? The device must be placed away from places where children, animals and even adults may be.

The air is humidified and heated at the same time, which cannot be said about the first two devices. The big disadvantage is the high energy consumption and quite loud noise. Nothing can be done about it. One of the main (and perhaps the only) advantages is the ability to use it as an inhaler for colds and prevention. Special attachments are sometimes sold as a set.

Multifunctional units (climate complexes)

They are often called “sinks”. Analogues of traditional ones, but more advanced. They quickly humidify and at the same time ionize (clean) the air. The consumable is simple H2O, which greatly simplifies their use, no replaceable cassettes or filters. Almost silent, but quite expensive. Is a humidifier necessary for children? Undoubtedly, this is the best option for a nursery.

Control mechanism

Another way that one product differs from another is the control mechanism. It can be mechanical (simpler, 1-2 control knobs) and electronic (display, touch buttons). An air humidifier for an apartment is suitable for any type of humidifier a person wants. When choosing, everything depends on finances and the client’s desire. It is worth paying attention to the size of the room in which the device will be located, and to the health characteristics of family members (contraindications to humid, hot air are possible). In case the buyer is completely confused and doesn’t know what to buy, competent consultants will help him and tell him where to choose.

Peculiarities

In order for it to serve for a long time and perform good service, it is necessary:

Of course, read the entire instructions from beginning to end so as not to accidentally pour tap water into your expensive ultrasonic device.
Monitor the hygrometer readings in a timely manner (if the mechanism has this function). These figures should be no less than 46% and not rise above 61% for rooms with adults, and 49-72 for rooms with children.

The benefits and harms of a humidifier

Some buyers, when used incorrectly and with a frivolous attitude towards devices, end up not feeling good, but a lot of troubles. It is not the machine that is to blame, it is the person who is to blame for all the troubles.

Untimely change of filters, incorrect location of the device, high humidity lead to disastrous consequences, bringing harm rather than benefit. You should carefully study the instructions and strictly follow its advice.

To more accurately understand what harm humidifiers can cause, let’s look at the intricacies of their use in more detail, step by step.

A traditional humidifier operates on replaceable cartridges and requires frequent replacement. If the buyer ignores this need, the cassette will turn into a breeding ground for pathogens. They are then sprayed along with the humid air, causing allergies and unpleasant diseases in all family members.

The steam appliance, as stated earlier, emits a very dangerous hot stream of steam. It can harm living organisms. But it can also damage household items if you install it, for example, near electrical appliances. It is very easy to ruin expensive wallpaper or a favorite painting with this steam. It is necessary to correctly and competently approach the installation site of such a mechanism.

Use in winter

Many people are also interested in another question: is a humidifier necessary in winter? During this period of the year, air humidity drops to 14%, which is significantly below the optimal level. The air can then be compared to that of a hot desert.

There is an opinion that in winter the air is dried by batteries. They dry wet towels, so they do the same with him. Although in reality this is all fiction. Wet things dry on the radiator because the water in them turns into steam. And the liquid that is present in the air is a priori in a gaseous state. And no matter how hot the battery is, it cannot dry the air. But in winter, the air in the house actually becomes drier. Why then does this happen? It is possible to dry the air not by heating, but by adsorption, that is, you just need to remove moisture from the air. Simple physical and chemical processes. When cold air enters from the street, it begins to warm up and its moisture capacity increases. At the same time, the relative humidity decreases. It no longer contains the optimal amount of water vapor as it did a few minutes ago. Dry air makes you want to “drink” more. Now, in search of the missing moisture, it sucks it out of everything around, and its main supplier is, of course, man.

Air enters the house through any crack or hole, open window or constantly opening front door. Such regular ventilation brings even more cold air into the apartment. And, as a result, it greatly reduces relative humidity. So it now becomes clear whether a humidifier is needed in winter.

Use in summer

What about the summer period? Why do you need humidifiers in summer? Many will say that at this time of year the air indoors and outdoors is approximately the same temperature. But such ventilation does not make the air dry at all, and they will be right. The air dries out in the summer for a completely different reason. Air conditioner! Almost every second family has this miracle of technology at home. After all, he’s such a life saver in hot weather. summer days, cooling the air in the room. While doing a good deed, he at the same time greatly dries out the air. Therefore, a humidifier is just as necessary in the summer as it is in the winter months.

Conclusion

Now you know why air humidifiers are needed at any time of the year in every family that cares about their health. Whether it is worth spending a certain amount on it is up to the potential buyer to decide. In our article, we talked in detail about the benefits and harms of a humidifier.

Andreas Vesalius is rightly considered the creator of modern anatomy and the founder of the school of anatomists. He also enjoyed success as a practicing physician.

Andreas Vesalius was born in 1514 in Brussels into a family of hereditary physicians. His grandfather and great-grandfather were doctors, and his father served as a pharmacist at the court of Emperor Charles V. The interests of those around him undoubtedly influenced the interests and aspirations of young Vesalius. Andreas studied first at school and then at the University of Louvain, where he received a comprehensive education, studied Greek and Latin languages, thanks to which he could get acquainted with the works of scientists already in his youth. Obviously, he read many books about medicine by ancient and contemporary scientists, since his works speak about deep knowledge. Vesalius independently assembled a complete human skeleton from the bones of an executed man. This was the first anatomical manual in Europe.

Every year, Vesalius's passionate interest in the study of medicine and anatomical research became more and more evident. In his free time from the Teaching, he carefully dissected the bodies of animals, mice, cats, dogs, at home, studying the structure of their body. Trying to improve his knowledge in the field of medicine, especially anatomy, Vesalius, at the age of seventeen, went to the University of Montpellier, and in 1533 he first appeared at the medical faculty of the University of Paris to listen to the lectures of the famous Silvius. Young Vesalius could already take a critical approach to the method of teaching anatomy.

In the preface to the treatise “On the Structure of the Human Body,” he wrote: “My studies would never have led to success if, during my medical work in Paris, I had not put my own hands into this matter... And I myself, somewhat sophisticated with my own experience, publicly performed a third of the autopsies on his own.”

Vesalius asks questions during his lectures that indicate his doubts about the correctness of Galen's teachings. Galen is an indisputable authority, his teaching should be accepted without any reservations, and Vesalius trusts his eyes more than the works of Galen.

The scientist rightly considered anatomy to be the basis of medical knowledge, and the goal of his life was the desire to revive the experience of the distant past, to develop and improve the method of studying human anatomy. However, the church, which hindered the development of natural sciences, prohibited the autopsy of human corpses, considering it blasphemy. The young anatomist had to overcome many difficulties.

In order to be able to do anatomy, he took every opportunity. If he had money in his pocket, he negotiated with the cemetery watchman, and then a corpse fit for autopsy fell into his hands. If there was no money, he, hiding from the watchman, opened the grave himself, without his knowledge. What to do, I had to take risks! Vesalius studied the bones of the human and animal skeletons so well that he could name any bone by touch without looking at them.

Vesalius spent three years at the university, and then circumstances developed such that he had to leave Paris and go to Louvain again.

There Vesalius got into trouble. He removed the corpse of an executed criminal from the gallows and performed an autopsy. The Louvain clergy demanded the strictest punishment for such blasphemy. Vesalius realized that disputes were useless here, and considered it best to leave Louvain and went to Italy.

After receiving his doctorate in 1537, Vesalius began teaching anatomy and surgery at the University of Padua. The government of the Venetian Republic encouraged the development of natural science and sought to expand the work of scientists at this university.

The brilliant talent of the young scientist attracted attention. Twenty-two-year-old Vesalius, who had already received the title of Doctor of Medicine for his work, was appointed to the department of surgery with the responsibility of teaching anatomy.

He gave lectures with inspiration, which always attracted many listeners, worked with students and, most importantly, continued his research. And the deeper he studied internal structure body, the more I became convinced that there were many very significant errors in Galen’s teachings, which were simply not noticed by those who were under the influence of Galen’s authority. For four long years he worked on his work. He studied, translated and republished the works of medical scientists of the past, his anatomist predecessors. And in their works he found many errors. “Even the greatest scientists,” Vesalius wrote, “slavishly adhered to other people’s mistakes and some strange style in their unsuitable manuals.” The scientist began to trust the most authentic book - the book of the human body, in which there are no errors. At night, by candlelight, Vesalius dissected corpses. He set out to solve great task- correctly describe the location, shape and functions of the organs of the human body.

The result of the scientist’s passionate and persistent work was the famous treatise in seven books, which appeared in 1543 and entitled “On the Structure of the Human Body.” It was a gigantic scientific work, in which new scientific views were presented instead of outdated dogmas. It reflected the cultural rise of humanity during the Renaissance. Printing developed rapidly in Venice and in Basel, where Vesalius printed his work. His book is decorated with beautiful drawings by the artist Stefan Kalkar, a student of Titian. It is characteristic that the skeletons depicted in the drawings stand in poses characteristic of living people, and the landscapes surrounding some skeletons speak more about life than about death. All this work of Vesalius was intended for the benefit of a living person, the study of his body in order to preserve his health and life. Each capital letter in the treatise is decorated with a drawing depicting children studying anatomy. This is how it was in ancient times, the art of anatomy was taught from childhood, knowledge was passed on from father to son. The book's magnificent frontispiece artwork depicts Vesalius during a public lecture and dissection of a human corpse. Vesalius's work excited the minds of scientists. The courage of his scientific thought was so unusual that, along with his followers who appreciated his discoveries, he had many enemies. The great scientist experienced a lot of grief and disappointment when even his students abandoned him. The famous Silvius, Vesalius's teacher, called Vesalius "Vesanus", which means crazy. He spoke out against him with a sharp pamphlet, which he called “Defense against the slander of the anatomical works of Hippocrates and Galen by a certain madman.” He did not hesitate to turn to the emperor himself with a demand to punish Vesalius in an exemplary manner. “I beg Caesar’s Majesty,” wrote Professor Jacob Silvius, “to severely beat and generally curb this monster of ignorance, ingratitude, impudence, the most pernicious example of wickedness, born and raised in his house, as this monster deserves, so that with its pestilent breath it did not poison Europe." Vesalius foresaw how events would turn out after the publication of his treatise “On the Structure of the Human Body.” Even earlier, he wrote: “...my work will be attacked by those who did not take on anatomy as zealously as was the case in Italian schools, and who, now in old age, are languishing with envy at the correct revelations of the young man.”

Most eminent doctors really took Silvius’s side. They joined his demand to curb and punish Vesalius, who dared to criticize the great Galen. Such was the power of recognized authorities, such were the foundations of social life of that time, when any innovation aroused caution, any bold statement that went beyond the established canons was regarded as freethinking. These were the fruits of the centuries-old ideological monopoly of the church, which instilled inertia and routine.

Having opened dozens of corpses and carefully studied the human skeleton, Vesalius came to the conclusion that the opinion that men have one less rib than women is completely wrong. But such a belief went beyond medical science. It affected church doctrine.

Vesalius also did not take into account another statement of the clergy. In his time, the belief was maintained that there is a bone in the human skeleton that does not burn in fire and is indestructible. It supposedly contains a mysterious power with the help of which a person will be resurrected on the day of the Last Judgment in order to appear before the Lord God. And although no one saw this bone, it was described in scientific works, there was no doubt about its existence. Vesalius, who described the structure of the human body, directly stated that, while examining the human skeleton, he did not find a mysterious bone.

Vesalius was aware of the consequences of his actions against Galen. He understood that he was opposing the prevailing opinion and was hurting the interests of the church. And he knew well what to do with such daring loners. The scientist continued to teach at the University of Padua, but every day the atmosphere around him became more and more tense. He was sad to part with Padua, with the university, to interrupt his work and research. But he saw no other way out.

Just at this time he received an invitation from the Spanish Emperor Charles V to take the place of court physician. The emperor's court was at that time in Brussels. Vesalius's father also served Charles, and the young professor accepted the emperor's offer. Of course, in Brussels he will not have a department, he will not be able to teach students. But the imperial court will serve as a reliable shelter for him from the persecution of the church, leaving him the opportunity to study anatomy. Thus, the position of court physician, although Vesalius did not like it, had its advantages.

Still, it would be difficult to find a more unsuitable position for Vesalius. He was a scientist, a researcher. Now he had to learn principles that were very far from science, the ability to please his noble patients, capture their thoughts, and participate in all court ceremonies. But even under these conditions, he did not stop the work to which he devoted his life. All free time Vesalius gave a treatise “On the structure of the human body.” He made amendments, additions, and clarified what did not seem entirely convincing to him. Taking every opportunity, he was engaged in anatomization. But the thought that he is cut off from scientific centers, What research activities became a side business for him and oppressed Vesalius.

He dreamed of returning to scientific department. But in reality, Vesalius could not even think about leaving Brussels and moving to another place where he could do work he liked. As soon as he left the imperial court, the Inquisition would again show interest in him.

That is why, in the saddest moments of his life, Vesalius convinced himself that he had to come to terms with the circumstances. He managed to publish his treatise “On the Structure of the Human Body” in the second edition. It was only a short happy moment in all these years, and then everything went well. as before. A long series of monotonous days stretched out one after another.

But then Vesalius’ stay at the imperial court came to an end. His patron Charles V abdicated the throne, retired to a monastery and soon died. Philip II came to the throne - bilious and evil person.

He did not like Vesalius and openly expressed his dislike to him. Numerous envious people and enemies of the court physician hastened to take advantage of this. The attitude of the new emperor towards Vesalius worsened even more. Vesalius felt that he needed to leave Brussels as quickly as possible. He made an attempt to break free from the power of the new emperor and asked to be released to Italy. But the wayward Philip categorically opposed this.

Under Philip, the church's strict prohibitions on dissecting corpses again affected Vesalius. To violate them meant entering into open conflict with the church. Vesalius wrote with bitterness about this time - “I could not even touch a dry skull with my hand, and even less was I able to perform autopsies.” But no matter how hard Vesalius tried not to give the church a reason for any accusations, it turned out to be beyond his power. Streams of slander again poured down on Vesalius. To top it all off, he was falsely accused of having dissected a living person. Vesalius tried to prove his innocence, but it was all in vain.

He had to obey. The verdict of the church was categorical: the court physician Andrei Vesalius, in atonement for his sins, had to go to worship in the “holy places” at the Holy Sepulcher...

In 1564, Vesalius left Madrid with his wife and daughter. Leaving his family in Brussels, he set off on a long journey alone. On the way to Jerusalem, the scientist stopped in his beloved Venice, where he spent best years of your creative life.

Vesalius did not abandon the thought of returning to her favorite science. There is an assumption that the Senate of Venice invited him to again take up a chair at the University of Padua. But the scientist’s dream of returning to science did not come true. On the way back from Jerusalem, during a shipwreck, the sick Vesalius was thrown onto the island of Zante (Greece), where he died in 1564. We do not know the place of his burial, but the best monument to the scientist, fighter for progressive science is his great work about the structure of the human body.

ANDREAS VESALIUS

Andreas Vesalius is rightly considered the creator of modern anatomy and the founder of the school of anatomists. He also enjoyed success as a practicing physician.

Andreas Vesalius was born in 1514 in Brussels into a family of hereditary physicians. His grandfather and great-grandfather were doctors, and his father served as a pharmacist at the court of Emperor Charles V. The interests of those around him undoubtedly influenced the interests and aspirations of young Vesalius. Andreas studied first at school and then at the University of Louvain, where he received a comprehensive education, studied Greek and Latin, thanks to which he could become acquainted with the works of scientists at a young age. Obviously, he read many books about medicine by ancient and contemporary scientists, since his works speak of deep knowledge. Vesalius independently assembled a complete human skeleton from the bones of an executed man. This was the first anatomical manual in Europe.

Every year Vesalius's passionate interest in the study of medicine and anatomical research became more and more evident. In his free time from studying, he carefully dissected the bodies of animals at home: mice, cats, dogs, studying the structure of their bodies.

Striving to improve his knowledge in the field of medicine, especially anatomy, Vesalius, at the age of seventeen, went to the University of Montpellier, and in 1533 he first appeared at the medical faculty of the University of Paris to listen to lectures by the famous anatomist Silvius. Young Vesalius could already take a critical approach to the method of teaching anatomy.

In the preface to the treatise “On the Structure of the Human Body,” he wrote: “My studies would never have led to success if, during my medical work in Paris, I had not put my own hands into this matter... And I myself, somewhat sophisticated from my own experience, publicly performed a third of the autopsies on his own.”

Vesalius studied the bones of the human and animal skeletons so well that he could name any bone by touch without looking at them.

Vesalius spent three years at the university, and then circumstances developed such that he had to leave Paris and go to Louvain again.

There Vesalius got into trouble. He removed the corpse of an executed criminal from the gallows and performed an autopsy. The Louvain clergy demanded the strictest punishment for such blasphemy. Vesalius realized that disputes here were useless, and considered it best to leave Louvain and went to Italy.

He gave lectures with inspiration, which always attracted many listeners, worked with students and, most importantly, continued his research. And the more deeply he studied the internal structure of the body, the more he became convinced that there were many very significant errors in Galen’s teachings, which were simply not noticed by those who were under the influence of Galen’s authority.

He worked on his work for four long years. He studied, translated and republished the works of medical scientists of the past, his anatomist predecessors. And in their works he found many errors. “Even the greatest scientists,” wrote Vesalius, “slavishly adhered to the mistakes of others and some strange style in their unsuitable manuals.” The scientist began to trust the most authentic book - the book of the human body, in which there are no errors. At night, by candlelight, Vesalius dissected corpses. He set out to solve the great problem of correctly describing the location, shape and functions of the organs of the human body.

Printing developed rapidly in Venice and in Basel, where Vesalius printed his work. His book is decorated with beautiful drawings by the artist Stefan Kalkar, a student of Titian. It is characteristic that the skeletons depicted in the drawings stand in poses characteristic of living people, and the landscapes surrounding some skeletons speak more about life than about death. All this work of Vesalius was intended for the benefit of a living person, the study of his body in order to preserve his health and life. Each capital letter in the treatise is decorated with a drawing depicting children studying anatomy. This is how it was in ancient times: the art of anatomy was taught from childhood, knowledge was passed on from father to son. The book's magnificent frontispiece artwork depicts Vesalius during a public lecture and dissection of a human corpse.

Vesalius's work excited the minds of scientists. The courage of his scientific thought was so unusual that, along with his followers who appreciated his discoveries, he had many enemies. The great scientist experienced a lot of grief and disappointment when even his students abandoned him. The famous Silvius, Vesalius's teacher, called Vesalius "Vesanus", which means crazy. He opposed him with a sharp pamphlet, which he called “Defense against the slander of the anatomical works of Hippocrates and Galen by a certain madman.”

He did not hesitate to turn to the emperor himself with a demand to punish Vesalius in an exemplary manner. “I beg Caesar’s Majesty,” wrote Professor Jacob Silvius, “to severely beat and generally curb this monster of ignorance, ingratitude, impudence, the most pernicious example of wickedness, born and raised in his house, as this monster deserves, so that with its pestilent breath it did not poison Europe."

Vesalius foresaw how events would turn out after the publication of his treatise “On the Structure of the Human Body.” Even earlier, he wrote: “... my work will be attacked by those who did not take on anatomy as zealously as was the case in Italian schools, and who, now in old age, are languishing with envy at the correct revelations of the young man.”

Most eminent doctors really took Silvius’s side. They joined his demand to curb and punish Vesalius, who dared to criticize the great Galen. Such was the power of recognized authorities, such were the foundations of social life of that time, when any innovation caused caution, any bold statement that went beyond the established canons was regarded as freethinking. These were the fruits of the centuries-old ideological monopoly of the church, which instilled inertia and routine.

Having opened dozens of corpses and carefully studied the human skeleton, Vesalius came to the conclusion that the idea that men have one less rib than women is completely wrong. But such a belief went beyond the scope of medical science. It affected church doctrine.

Vesalius also did not take into account another statement of the clergy. In his time, the belief was maintained that there is a bone in the human skeleton that does not burn in fire and is indestructible. It supposedly contains a mysterious power with the help of which a person will be resurrected on the day of the Last Judgment in order to appear before the Lord God. And although no one saw this bone, it was described in scientific works, and there was no doubt about its existence. Vesalius, who described the structure of the human body, directly stated that, while examining the human skeleton, he did not find a mysterious bone.

Vesalius was aware of the consequences of his speeches against Galen. He understood that he was opposing the prevailing opinion and was hurting the interests of the church. And he knew well what to do with such daring loners. The scientist continued to teach at the University of Padua, but every day the atmosphere around him became more and more tense. He was bitter to part with Padua, with the university, to interrupt his work and research. But he saw no other way out.

Just at this time he received an invitation from the Spanish Emperor Charles V to take the place of court physician. The emperor's court was at that time in Brussels. Vesalius’s father also served Charles, and the young professor accepted the emperor’s offer. Of course, in Brussels he will not have a department, he will not be able to teach students. But the imperial court will serve as a reliable shelter for him from the persecution of the church, leaving him the opportunity to study anatomy. Thus, the position of court physician, although Vesalius did not like it, had its advantages.

But even under these conditions, he did not stop the work to which he devoted his life. Vesalius devoted all his free time to the treatise “On the structure of the human body.” He made amendments, additions, and clarified what did not seem entirely convincing to him. Taking every opportunity, he studied anatomy. But the thought that he was cut off from scientific centers, that research activities had become a sideline for him, depressed Vesalius.

He dreamed of returning to the scientific department. But in reality, Vesalius could not even think about leaving Brussels and moving to another place where he could do work he liked. As soon as he left the imperial court, the Inquisition would again show interest in him. That is why, in the saddest moments of his life, Vesalius convinced himself that he had to come to terms with the circumstances.

He managed to publish his treatise “On the Structure of the Human Body” in the second edition. It was just a short happy moment in all these years, and then everything went on as before. A long series of monotonous days stretched out one after another.

But then Vesalius’s stay at the imperial court came to an end. His patron Charles V abdicated the throne, retired to a monastery and soon died. Philip II, a bilious and angry man, ascended the throne. He did not like Vesalius and openly showed him his hostility. Numerous envious people and enemies of the court physician hastened to take advantage of this. The new emperor's attitude towards Vesalius worsened even more. Vesalius felt that he needed to leave Brussels as quickly as possible. He made an attempt to break free from the power of the new emperor and asked to be released to Italy. But the wayward Philip categorically opposed this.

Under Philip, the church's strict prohibitions on dissecting corpses again affected Vesalius. To violate them meant to enter into open conflict with the church. Vesalius wrote with bitterness about this time: “I could not even touch a dry skull with my hand, and even less was I able to perform autopsies.”

But no matter how hard Vesalius tried not to give the church a reason for any accusations, it turned out to be beyond his power. Streams of slander again poured down on Vesalius. To top it all off, he was falsely accused of having dissected a living person.

Vesalius tried to prove his innocence, but it was all in vain. He had to obey. The verdict of the church was categorical: the court physician Andrei Vesalius, in atonement for his sins, had to go to worship in the “holy places” at the Holy Sepulcher...

Vesalius did not abandon the thought of returning to her favorite science. There is an assumption that the Senate of Venice invited him to again take up a chair at the University of Padua. But the scientist’s dream of returning to science did not come true. On the way back from Jerusalem, during a shipwreck, the sick Vesalius was thrown onto the island of Zante (Greece), where he died in 1564. We do not know the place of his burial, but the best monument to the scientist and fighter for progressive science is his great work on the structure of the human body.

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Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach (1804-1872) philosopher There is more life in the quickly fading petals of a flower than in heavy thousand-year-old blocks of granite. In an ecstatic state, a person is able to do what is otherwise downright impossible. Passions work miracles, that is, actions that

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Vesalius and scientific anatomy The famous scientist Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) managed to correct the mistakes of his predecessors and significantly expanded the anatomical knowledge of his time. By summarizing and classifying known information, he transformed anatomy into a true science.

VESALIUS, ANDREAS (Vesalius, Andreas) (1514–1564), Italian naturalist. Born December 31, 1514 (or January 1, 1515) in Brussels (Belgium). He studied medicine in Brussels, Louvain and Paris. In 1537 he received a bachelor's degree in medicine in Louvain, and in the same year he received a doctorate in medicine in Padua. From 1539 - professor at the University of Padua.

Basic scientific works Vesalius are devoted to human anatomy. In 1538, the scientist published Anatomical Tables - six sheets of engravings made by Stefan Van Calcar, a student of Titian Vecelli. In them, Vesalius clarified and expanded the anatomical terminology, illustrated new data on the structure of the human body. Convinced that many of the anatomical texts of Galen, the famous Roman physician (c. 130–200 AD), were based on animal dissections and therefore did not reflect the specifics of human anatomy, Vesalius decided to undertake experimental studies human body. The result was a treatise on the structure of the human body (De humani corporis fabrica, 1543).

“Know yourself” (Nosce te ipsum) - this, in my own words, was the essence of anatomy, and Vesalius’s book greatly contributed to the process of knowledge. But a person is extremely resistant to delusions, especially a specialist, and a narrow specialist - even more so. And parting with delusions is like death. And the book of Vesalius, without claiming to be the absolute truth, forced us to rethink a lot anew, in accordance not with speculation - they, like shell rock, stuck to the bottom of the ship of knowledge, interfering with movement forward, but with the facts that were obtained through experiment and practice.

It must be said that Vesalius was not inclined to write a lot. Apart from the main book of his life, we know only a few of his publications. These are the famous “Tabullae anatomicae sex” (“Six anatomical tables”), which were the prelude to his main work. His letter on bloodletting from the right ulnar vein in inflammatory processes was also published as a separate publication. Since venous blood from the liver flows to the periphery, and its mixing occurs in the superior vena cava, then, according to Vesalius, even with left-sided pneumonia, bloodletting from the veins of the right arm can have a therapeutic effect. This work was a response to the fierce controversy on the issue of bloodletting and, to a certain extent, put an end to that controversy.
In addition to his main work, Vesalius wrote “Epitome”, published in the same 1543 as an annotation to his book. This is, if you like, anatomy for beginners in an accessible and concise form. By the way, according to experts, this book has not appeared in Russian, and no originals have been found in CIS libraries.
He has two more publications. This is a letter about the medicinal properties of a decoction of cinchona root (Basel, 1546) and a letter to Gabriel Fallopius with a response to his criticism (Venza, 1564) - the same Fallopius, whose name is given to the pipes he opened (that is, the oviducts through which the egg cell passes from the ovary into the uterus). So, in his first letter, Vesalius reports the successful use of a decoction of cinchona root for gout, simultaneously devoting several pages to defending his anatomical views. The second contains frank thoughts on the development of anatomy, examines the merits of Fallopius and notes with regret the premature departure of Vesalius from anatomy.

In 1543, Vesalius became the court physician of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, and acquired an extensive private practice and a high reputation. After the abdication of Charles V in 1556, he entered the service of his son Philip II, King of Spain. After the death in 1562 of Gabriele Fallopio, who occupied the department of anatomy in Padua, Vesalius decided to return to research work. Under the pretext of illness and a desire to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, he obtained permission to go on vacation. In May 1564, Vesalius received his former chair and, before the start of the new semester, went on a trip to Jerusalem. On the way back, the ship on which Vesalius was sailing was shipwrecked and washed up on the island of Zakynthos. Vesalius died on the island of Zakynthos in June 1564.

Preface to the Russian edition of Andrei Vesalius’s treatise “On the structure of the human body”

The period, not without reason called the Renaissance, breathes with bursting passion, the period of the beginning of free art and free research thought in modern history humanity. Involvement with this passion will always remain a powerful impetus for the current artistic and research work. That is why artistic and scientific works of this period should be constantly before the eyes of current generations and, as for science, in a form accessible to wide use, i.e. in native language. This fully justifies the appearance in Russian of the work of Andrei Vesalius entitled: “De Humani Corporis Fabrica” of 1543. The title alone sounds invigorating. He seems to be saying: here is the structure, now understand and further study the activities of this grandiose object. Vesalius's work is the first human anatomy in the modern history of mankind, which does not merely repeat the instructions and opinions of ancient authorities, but is based on the work of a free exploring mind.