History of Russian immigration. Emigration in pre-revolutionary Russia. Pros of emigration: why go abroad

The first wave of Russian emigrants who left Russia after the October Revolution has a most tragic fate. Now the fourth generation of their descendants lives, which to a large extent has lost contact with their historical homeland.

Unknown continent

The Russian emigration of the first post-revolutionary war, also called white, is an epoch-making phenomenon that has no analogues in history, not only in its scale, but also in its contribution to world culture. Literature, music, ballet, painting, like many scientific achievements of the 20th century, are unthinkable without the first wave of Russian emigrants.

This was the last emigration exodus, when not just subjects were found abroad Russian Empire, and bearers of Russian identity without subsequent "Soviet" admixtures. Subsequently, they created and inhabited a continent that is not on any map of the world - its name is "Russian Diaspora".

The main direction of the white emigration is countries Western Europe with centers in Prague, Berlin, Paris, Sofia, Belgrade. A significant part settled in the Chinese Harbin - here by 1924 up to 100 thousand Russian emigrants were reading. As Archbishop Nathanael (Lvov) wrote, “Harbin was an exceptional phenomenon at that time. Built by the Russians on Chinese territory, it remained a typical Russian provincial town for another 25 years after the revolution. "

According to the calculations of the American Red Cross, on November 1, 1920, the total number of emigrants from Russia was 1 million 194 thousand people. The League of Nations cites data as of August 1921 - 1.4 million refugees. Historian Vladimir Kabuzan estimates the number of those who emigrated from Russia in the period from 1918 to 1924 at least 5 million people.

Short-term separation

The first wave of emigrants did not expect to spend their entire lives in exile. They expected that the Soviet regime was about to collapse and they could see their homeland again. Such sentiments explain their opposition to assimilation and their intention to limit their lives to the framework of an emigrant colony.

Sergei Rafalsky, a publicist and emigrant of the first won, wrote about this: “The brilliant era, when the emigration still smelled of dust, gunpowder and blood of the Don steppes, was somehow erased in foreign memory, and its elite could imagine a change at any call at midnight” usurpers "and a full set of the Council of Ministers, and the necessary quorum of the Legislative Chambers, and the General Staff, and the gendarme corps, and the Intelligence Department, and the Chamber of Commerce, and the Holy Synod, and the Governing Senate, not to mention professors and representatives of the arts, especially literature ".

In the first wave of emigration, in addition to the large number of cultural elites of the Russian pre-revolutionary society, there was a significant share of the military. According to the League of Nations, about a quarter of all post-revolutionary emigrants belonged to the white armies that left Russia for different time from different fronts.

Europe

In 1926, according to the League of Nations Refugee Service, 958.5 thousand Russian refugees were officially registered in Europe. Of these, about 200 thousand were received by France, about 300 thousand - by the Turkish Republic. In Yugoslavia, Latvia, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and Greece approximately 30-40 thousand emigrants lived.

In the first years, Constantinople played the role of a transshipment base for the Russian emigration, but over time, its functions were transferred to other centers - Paris, Berlin, Belgrade and Sofia. So, according to some sources, in 1921 the Russian population of Berlin reached 200 thousand people - it was it who first of all suffered from the economic crisis, and by 1925 no more than 30 thousand people remained there.

Prague and Paris are gradually being promoted to the main roles of centers of Russian emigration, in particular, the latter is rightly considered the cultural capital of emigration of the first wave. A special place among the Parisian emigrants was played by the Don military formation, which was chaired by one of the leaders of the white movement, Venedikt Romanov. After the National Socialists came to power in Germany in 1933, and especially during the Second World War, the outflow of Russian emigrants from Europe to the United States increased sharply.

China

On the eve of the revolution, the number of the Russian diaspora in Manchuria reached 200 thousand people, after the start of emigration it increased by another 80 thousand. Throughout the period Civil War in the Far East (1918-1922), in connection with the mobilization, an active movement of the Russian population of Manchuria began.

After the defeat of the white movement, emigration to North China increased sharply. By 1923, the number of Russians here was estimated at about 400 thousand. Of this number, about 100 thousand received Soviet passports, many of them decided to repatriate to the RSFSR. The amnesty announced to the rank-and-file members of the White Guard formations played a role here.

The period of the 1920s was marked by an active re-emigration of Russians from China to other countries. This especially affected young people heading to study at universities in the USA, South America, Europe and Australia.

Stateless persons

On December 15, 1921, a decree was adopted in the RSFSR, according to which many categories of former subjects of the Russian Empire were deprived of their rights to Russian citizenship, including those who had stayed abroad continuously for more than 5 years and who had not received foreign passports or relevant certificates from Soviet missions in time.

So many Russian emigrants ended up as stateless persons. But their rights continued to be protected by the former Russian embassies and consulates as the RSFSR and then the USSR were recognized by the respective states.

A number of issues concerning Russian emigrants could be resolved only at the international level. To this end, the League of Nations decided to introduce the post of High Commissioner for Russian Refugees. It was the famous Norwegian polar explorer Fridtjof Nansen. In 1922, special "Nansen" passports appeared, which were issued to Russian emigrants.

Until the end of the 20th century, emigrants and their children remained in different countries, living with "Nansen" passports. Thus, Anastasia Aleksandrovna Shirinskaya-Manstein, the elder of the Russian community in Tunisia, received a new Russian passport only in 1997.

“I was waiting for Russian citizenship. The Soviet did not want it. Then I waited for the passport to be with a double-headed eagle - the embassy offered with the coat of arms of the International, I waited with an eagle. I am such a stubborn old woman, ”Anastasia Alexandrovna confessed.

The fate of emigration

Many figures of Russian culture and science met the proletarian revolution in its prime. Hundreds of scientists, writers, philosophers, musicians, and artists found themselves abroad who could have made up the flower of the Soviet nation, but due to circumstances revealed their talent only in emigration.

But the overwhelming majority of the emigrants had to get a job as drivers, waiters, dishwashers, auxiliary workers, musicians in small restaurants, nevertheless continuing to consider themselves bearers of the great Russian culture.

The paths of the Russian emigration were different. Some initially did not accept the Soviet regime, others were forcibly exiled abroad. The ideological conflict, in fact, split the Russian emigration. This was especially acute during the Second World War. Part of the Russian diaspora believed that for the sake of the fight against fascism it was worth making an alliance with the communists, the other refused to support both totalitarian regime... But there were also those who were ready to fight against the hated Soviets on the side of the Nazis.

White emigrants from Nice turned to the representatives of the USSR with a petition:
“We deeply grieved that at the time of Germany's perfidious attack on our Motherland,
physically deprived of the opportunity to be in the ranks of the valiant Red Army. But we
helped our Motherland by working underground ”. And in France, according to the calculations of the emigrants themselves, every tenth representative of the Resistance Movement was Russian.

Dissolving in someone else's environment

The first wave of Russian emigration, having experienced a peak in the first 10 years after the revolution, subsided in the 1930s, and by the 1940s it had completely disappeared. Many descendants of the first wave of emigrants have long forgotten about their ancestral home, but the traditions of preserving Russian culture that were once laid down are still largely alive today.

A descendant of a noble family, Count Andrei Musin-Pushkin sadly stated: “Emigration was doomed to disappear or assimilate. The old people died, the young gradually disappeared into the local environment, turning into French, Americans, Germans, Italians ... Sometimes it seems that only beautiful, sonorous surnames and titles remain from the past: counts, princes, Naryshkins, Sheremetyevs, Romanovs, Musins-Pushkins " ...

So, in the transit points of the first wave of Russian emigration, no one was left alive. The last was Anastasia Shirinskaya-Manstein, who died in 2009 in Tunisian Bizerte.

The situation with the Russian language was also difficult, which at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries in the Russian diaspora found itself in an ambiguous position. Natalya Bashmakova, a professor of Russian literature living in Finland, a descendant of emigrants who fled from St. Petersburg in 1918, notes that in some families the Russian language lives even in the fourth generation, in others it died many decades ago.

“The problem of languages \u200b\u200bis personally sad for me,” says the scientist, “since I emotionally feel better than Russian, but I’m not always sure about the use of some expressions, Swedish is deep within me, but, of course, I have now forgotten it. Emotionally, he is closer to me than Finnish. "

Many descendants of the first wave of emigrants who left Russia because of the Bolsheviks live in Adelaide, Australia today. They still bear Russian surnames and even Russian names, but their native language is already English. Their homeland is Australia, they do not consider themselves emigrants and have little interest in Russia.

Most of those who have Russian roots currently live in Germany - about 3.7 million people, in the USA - 3 million, in France - 500 thousand, in Argentina - 300 thousand, in Australia - 67 thousand Several waves of emigration from Russia mixed here. But, as polls have shown, the descendants of the first wave of emigrants feel least connected with the homeland of their ancestors.

Emigration from Russia until the middle of the 19th century was a rare occurrence.

Emigrating from Russia was not easy for a number of reasons:

 legal;

 socio-psychological;

 financial.

The situation changed in 1857, when a law was adopted that determined the procedure for leaving abroad for a temporary (5 years) stay, after which

it was necessary to apply for its extension. Otherwise,

the man was considered to have lost his citizenship and his property passed into custody, and he himself, upon returning to Russia, was subject to eternal exile.

In 1892, they received the right to officially leave Russia and not return.

The established procedures were also preserved by the Charter on Passports of 1903.

The introduction of relatively simplified rules for traveling abroad coincided with

abolition of serfdom. After gaining freedom, some peasants decided to go abroad. A significant part of Russians left on a semi-legal basis, using so-called legitimizing passports instead of passports.

tickets - temporary certificates intended for residents of the border strip, which made it easier and cheaper to travel. First of all, with such documents

used by Poles and Jews from areas of the Pale of Settlement.

Calculations of the number of emigration are complicated - there was no strict accounting, and besides, there was no emigration as such (there was a temporary departure). Pre-revolutionary

emigration is estimated from 4 million 6 (of which 40% are Jews) to 7 million 7 (citizens of the Russian Empire) people.

In the emigration of the second half of the XIX - early XX century. distinguish between the following

large groups: labor, religious, national (mainly Jewish), political. Moreover, Jewish emigration includes religious, economic and political elements. In its classification, the chronological principle is not decisive.

6 Emigration and repatriation in Russia. M., 2001.S. 29.

7 Popov A.V. Russian Diaspora and archives. M., 1998.S. 46.

Pre-revolutionary emigration, unlike subsequent emigration, is not customary to divide

into waves, although some authors do this, referring primarily to political emigration and linking this division, in accordance with Soviet historiography, with the "stages of the liberation movement." There are two periodizations

pre-revolutionary history of political emigration : 1) the first divides it rather conditionally into two stages:

- populist (1847 - 1883),

- proletarian (1883 - 1917),

2) the second periodization is more complex, four or five waves are distinguished in it by different researchers (sometimes the third and fourth waves are combined):

- decembrist, or noble (1825 - 1850s, center - Paris),

- the result of the abolition of serfdom and the Polish uprising (1860 - 1870s, center - London and Geneva),

- the result of the second revolutionary situation (end of 1870 - 1895, center -

- (1895 - 1905, centers - Geneva, Paris),

- revolutionary (1906 - 1917) (centers - Paris, cities of Switzerland, Austria, England)8 .

8 See, for example: Pushkareva N.L. Formation of the Russian Diaspora after 1945

// EO. 1992. No. 6. P. 18 - 19.

The most widespread among all pre-revolutionary emigration was labor

vaya (economic) emigrationnine . It consisted of landless peasants, artisans, and unskilled workers. This emigration gained strength gradually, but by the 1890s it had already acquired an impressive scale. She walked to the

new to the countries of the new world, primarily the United States. As in Russia, the peasantry abroad united mainly around church parishes, peasant

brotherhoods, mutual aid societies. Among this category of emigrants there were few educated and literate people, so they left behind few documents, in connection with which the study of this group of emigration is extremely difficult.

The emigration of well-known figures of art, science and culture is partly connected with labor emigration. This group can be conditionally called the emigration of the "creative intelligentsia." For some of them, living abroad was connected

but exclusively with lucrative contracts (sometimes quite lengthy),

after which they returned to their homeland, therefore they can be attributed to the representatives of the so-called "pendulum migration". For many representatives of the creative intelligentsia, scientists, it was not so much income that was important as recognition and the opportunity to work freely, which also served as another weighty argument.

ment in favor of living abroad. The events of the First World War pre-

hindered free movement and led to the loss of ties with Russia.

9 See more about this: N.L. Tudoryanu. Essays on Russian labor emigration during the imperialist period (to Germany, the Scandinavian countries and the USA). Chisinau, 1986.

In the last third of the XIX century. has become quite widespread national emigre

tion from Russia (Ukrainians, Poles, Latvians, Lithuanians, Finns, Tatars, Germans, Jews). In many ways, this emigration was caused by the oppression of the law and the authorities of these nationalities.

Religious emigrationin the pre-revolutionary period consisted mainly of sectarians: Dukhobors, Molokans, Stundists and Old Believers, who

settled primarily in Canada and the United States. The first mass movement for their

resettlement dates back to the 1890s, the next surge refers to 1905. The number of religious emigration from 1826 to 1905 was 26.5 thousand Orthodox Christians and sectarians, of which 18 thousand left in the last decade of the 19th century. and in five pre-revolutionary years10.

10 Emigration and repatriation in Russia. M., 2001.S. 31.

One more group can be distinguished - the so-called " emigrants reluctantly

le "who ended up abroad without leaving their native places. These were Russian citizens who became Americans in connection with the sale of Alaska to America in 1867. This group left behind a significant number of documents,

which was due to the existence on this territory of various Russian trade and other enterprises with their own office work, as well as the presence

a large number of Orthodox parishes that also kept their records.

The number of sources left behind by various groups

emigration, uneven. If the economic emigration practically did not leave behind sources, like sectarians, then other groups, especially the political one, provide rich source material for study, which must be actively involved in historical research.

Basic concepts

Migrations, or spatial movement of the population, is one of the most complex historical and demographic phenomena that determine many features of modern social, as well as political and economic life.

In the context of demographic science, migrations are identical mechanical movement of the populationand imply a ratio of the outflow and inflow of the population in a particular place (migration balance). Along with the ratio of fertility and mortality, or natural movement of the population, migration, or mechanical movement of the population, are two components that determine the dynamics of the population.

An essential sign of migration is their nature - voluntaryor compulsory, legal or illegal etc. This is especially true for the 20th century, which was so replete with manifestations of violence and cruelty, which were noticeably manifested in migration processes.

At the same time, migrations differ internalcarried out within one state, and external, or international, implying the crossing of state borders by migrants and, as a rule, a significant change in their status. With regard to external migrations, the outflow of the population is associated with emigration, and the inflow - with immigration. In addition, there are such types of external migrations as repatriation and option.

Emigration (from the Latin "emigro" - "I am moving out") - this is the departure of citizens from their country to another for permanent residence or for a more or less long period for political, economic or other reasons. Like any type of migration, it can be either forced or voluntary.

Respectively, emigrants - these are those who left or who had to leave their native country and live away from it for a long time, sometimes the rest of their lives. So to speak, "business travelers" (for example, diplomats), although they also spend a long time abroad, are not included in the number of emigrants. They also do not include those (as a rule, they are representatives of the wealthy nobility, scientific and artistic intelligentsia) who went abroad for several months or even years for study or treatment, or simply preferred to live or work abroad from time to time.

Immigration (from Latin " immigro"-" I move in ") - this is the settling of citizens of another state into a certain receiving state, which they were forced to leave for a long time or forever for political, religious, economic or other reasons. Accordingly, immigrants are those who came to this or that foreign country and settled in it.

The factors pushing people out of one country and the factors pulling them to another country are infinitely variable and form countless combinations. The motives of emigration, as well as the motives of immigration, of course, lend themselves to group interpretation and classification (economic, political, religious, national), but they always have and will always have a personal, purely individual motive - and often decisive.

A peculiar form of immigration is repatriation(from Latin " repatriatio"-" return to the homeland "), or return to the homeland and restoration of the rights of citizenship of emigrants from one country or another - its former citizens or representatives of the peoples inhabiting it. Repatriates can be both persons who directly emigrated from this country in due time, and their children and other descendants. Therefore, in relation to repatriation, they often operate with the concept of "historical homeland", or "homeland of ancestors", which is used to justify, in particular, the immigration of Jews or Armenians from all countries of the world to Israel or the Armenian SSR, or ethnic Germans from the countries of the former USSR , Poland and Romania in Germany,

Another type of international (external) migration that is significant in our case is options(from Latin " optatio"-" desire "), or resettlement due to the need for the population to self-determine and choose citizenship and place of residence. As a rule, this happens when one or another state is liquidated or the borders of two neighboring states change, which poses for all persons who lived in the territory that changed its status the problem of choosing belonging to the old or new statehood, and in some cases - the problem of leaving their homes. ... Accordingly, the same problem arises in the mutual exchange of territories between neighboring states, which, of course, also affects the population.

Emigration from the Russian Empire

It is customary to trace the history of Russian emigration to the 16th century - to the time of Ivan the Terrible: the first political emigrant in this case was Prince Kurbsky. The 17th century was also marked by the first "defectors": they, apparently, were those young nobles whom Boris Godunov sent to Europe to study, but they did not return to Russia. The most famous Russian emigrants of the pre-revolutionary time are, perhaps, Gogol, Herzen, Turgenev (France and Germany, 1847-1883), Mechnikov (Paris, 1888-1916), Pirogov, Lenin and Gorky, and the most famous "business trip" is most likely Tyutchev.

As a legal concept, emigration was absent in pre-revolutionary Russian legislation. The transition of Russians to another citizenship was prohibited, and the period of stay abroad was limited to five years, after which it was necessary to apply for an extension of the period. Otherwise, the person lost his citizenship and was subject, in case of return, to arrest and eternal exile; his property was automatically transferred to the Board of Trustees. Since 1892, emigration was allowed only in relation to Jews: but in this case, any form of repatriation was categorically forbidden to them.

There were no other regulators of emigration. Accordingly, there was no adequate accounting. Statistics recorded only persons with legitimate passports who legally crossed the borders of the empire.

But it must be said that up to the middle of the 19th century, the cases of emigration themselves were almost isolated. Then they became somewhat more frequent (mainly for political reasons), but the number of people arriving in Russia invariably exceeded the number of those leaving it. And only on the eve and, in particular, after the serf reform of 1861, the situation changed seriously: the departure abroad of Russia, and therefore emigration, became a truly mass phenomenon.

Although it fits into this time frame, such a non-trivial case as the mass emigration to Turkey of the so-called “muhajirs” - mountaineers from the conquered Western Caucasus - stands out somewhat. During 1863-1864, 398 thousand Adygs, Abazins and Nogays left the Kuban region for Turkey, whose descendants still live both in Turkey and in other countries of the Middle East, Western Europe and the USA.

Unlike post-revolutionary emigration, pre-revolutionary emigration is usually divided not into chronological waves, but into four typological groups with mixed bases of division: labor (or economic), religious, Jewish, and political (or revolutionary). In the first three groups, intercontinental emigration unconditionally prevailed (mainly to the USA and Canada), and in the case of political emigration - from Herzen to Lenin - the European direction always dominated.

Labor, or economic emigration, undoubtedly, was the most massive. For the years 1851-1915. Russia with its agrarian overpopulation left 4.5 million people, mostly peasants, artisans and laborers. At the same time, the growth of emigration for some time was not accompanied by the formation and growth of the Russian diaspora, since the overwhelming majority of pre-revolutionary emigrants themselves were foreign nationals, mainly, immigrants from Germany (more than 1400 thousand people), Persia (850 thousand), Austria-Hungary (800 thousand) and Turkey (400 thousand people). The same is echoed by the data of V. Obolensky (Osinsky): in 1861-1915, 4.3 million people left the Russian Empire, including almost 2.7 million - back in the 19th century. True, most of the emigrants left not from Russia within its current borders, but from its western provinces - today's Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, the Baltic countries.

Beginning in the 1870s, the European and Asian directions of emigration were replaced by the American (from 2/3 to 4/5 of those who left). During 1871-1920 about 4 million people moved to Canada, the USA and other countries of the New World. The repatriation rate of emigrants was estimated at 18%.

Quantitatively religious emigration, affecting mainly dukhobors, molokan and old Believers, was negligible. It developed at the very end of the 19th century, when about 7,500 Dukhobors moved to Canada and the USA. In the 1900s, 3.5 thousand Molokans moved to the USA (mainly to California).

Emigration jews from the territory of Russia began after 1870, and from the very beginning it focused on the New World, and primarily on the United States, where, since the proclamation of the American Constitution, Jews enjoyed exactly the same civil and religious rights as Christians. Jews accounted for more than 40% of emigrants from Russia. Among the 1,732.5 thousand natives of Russia, recorded in the USA by the 1910 census, they accounted for 838, Poles - 418, Lithuanians - 137, Germans - 121, and Russians - only 40.5 thousand people

From this point of view, it is not easy to separate the Jewish emigration from, say, labor. It also contained elements of a religious and, to a large extent, political emigration. At the same time, the adherence of Jewish emigrants from Russia to the traditions of Russian culture and the Russian language was also something not quite ordinary at that time.

American researcher Ts. Gitelman rightly notes: " No group of Jews has migrated as often, in such large numbers and with such serious consequences as the Jews of Russia and the former USSR. Mass emigration of Russian / Soviet Jews played an important role in the formation of the two largest Jewish communities in the world - the United States and Israel" .

In 1880-1890, 0.6 million Jews arrived in the United States, another 1.5 million in 1900-1914, and 2.5 million Jews from Eastern Europe, mainly from Russia, in 1880-1924. Of the 3.7 million Jews who lived in the United States in 1930, at least 80% were from Eastern Europe, of whom the lion's share (60% and more) were Jews from Russia, mainly from small towns. All these were mainly young people, and if by profession, then artisans, small traders and musicians prevailed among them. In America, many of them retrained as wage workers, which, incidentally, led to the formation of a large Jewish proletariat and strong trade unions. Serious help to the newcomers was provided by their relatives, as well as Jewish philanthropic organizations created by representatives of Jewish immigrants of the previous wave.

In 1870-1890, 176.9 thousand Russian Jews migrated to the United States, and by 1905 their number reached 1.3 million.In total, in 1881-1912, according to Ts.Gitelman, 1889 thousand Jews emigrated from Russia, 84 of them % to the USA, 8.5% to England, 2.2% to Canada and 2.1% to Palestine. During this period, we recall that Russian Jews constituted about 4% of the population of the Russian Empire, but they accounted for up to 70% of all Jewish emigration to the United States, 48% of all immigration to the United States from Russia and 44% of all emigration from Russia.

The majority of Jewish immigrants from Russia settled in the same place as their predecessors from the previous (“German”) wave: they lived mainly in the northeast of the country - in the states of New York (more than 45%), Pennsylvania (about 10%), New Jersey (5%), as well as Chicago and other cities. At the same time, they lived, as a rule, in uncomfortable and overpopulated slums, in a kind of ghetto with their own customs and traditions; with the "German" Jews, the "Russian" ones at the local level almost did not mix.

The quantitative peak of Jewish emigration from Russia to the United States fell on the 1900s - 704.2 thousand people. Since the end of the 19th century, Jewish emigration to Canada has increased - 70 thousand people in 1898-1920, which amounted to about 50% of immigration from Russia and 80% of Jewish immigration to Canada. Approximately the same number of Jews emigrated to Palestine before 1914.

Political emigration from Russia was, perhaps, not so numerous (of course, no one kept the corresponding statistics), as complex and representative of the entire wide spectrum of political opposition forces in Russia that is difficult to classify clearly. At the same time, like no other, it was internally well organized and structured: suffice it to note that only in Europe, political emigrants from Russia published 287 titles of newspapers and magazines between 1855 and 1917! Moreover, it is incomparably better than emigration from pre-revolutionary Russia as a whole, it lends itself to conditional periodization. A.V. Popov, in particular, distinguishes two stages: 1) populist, leading its beginning from the emigration in 1847 by Herzen and ending in 1883 with the formation in Geneva of the Marxist group "Emancipation of Labor", and 2) proletarian (or, more precisely, socialist), much more massive and more complexly structured (more than 150 parties of various orientations).

The Russian government tried in every possible way to prevent political emigration, to suppress or impede its "subversive" activities abroad; with a number of countries (in particular, with the United States), it concluded agreements on the mutual extradition of political emigrants, which made them virtually illegal.

The First World War led to a sharp decline in international migrations, primarily labor and especially intercontinental ones (at the same time, internal migrations sharply increased, which is primarily due to the flows of refugees and evacuees fleeing the advancing enemy forces: their subsequent return, as a rule, only partial). She sharply accelerated the revolutionary situation and thereby made her "contribution" to the victory of the Bolsheviks and Left Socialist-Revolutionaries. Immediately after the October Revolution, a mass emigration of the most diverse social groups of the Russian population began, which have no reason to identify with the class whose dictatorship had been proclaimed.

Waves of emigration from the USSR

In general terms, the traditional scheme of the periodization of Russian emigration after 1917, emigration from the Soviet Union, has already developed and is generally recognized. It consisted, as it were, of four emigration " waves”, Sharply differing from each other for reasons, geographic structure, duration and intensity of emigration, the degree of participation of Jews in them, etc.

It is rather a figurative than a scientific concept - "wave". It is widespread and terminologically well-established, but at the same time it does not easily withstand the burden of a scientific concept and term. It would probably be more correct to call them not waves, but periodscorresponding to one or another chronological framework; behind waves it would be necessary to preserve a somewhat different, more characteristic load - the intervals of concentrated manifestation of the phenomenon itself, or, in other words, bursts, outbursts or peaks of emigration.

Therefore, denoting in parentheses the chronological frames of a particular wave, one must be aware that they indicate no more than the time of the actual resettlement, that is, the first phase of emigration. At the same time, there are other phases or stages that are no less important in meaning than the first, and they have a different chronological framework. For example, the phase of the consolidation of emigrants, the formation of their public organizations and the press, or the phase of their socio-economic integration into the life of the state that received them, in relation to which they are no longer emigrants, but immigrants, etc.

First wave (1918-1922)- military and civilians who fled from the victorious Soviet power during the revolution and the Civil wave, as well as from hunger. Emigration from Bolshevik Russia, according to various estimates, ranged from 1.5 to 3 million people. However (with the exception of perhaps the "philosophical steamers" with a hundred and fifty souls on board), these were still refugees, not deportants. Here, undoubtedly, the optical transfer of the population is not taken into account, due to the fact that parts of the territory of the former Russian Empire as a result of the First World War and revolutionary events either went to neighboring states (like Bessarabia to Romania), or became independent states, like Finland, Poland and countries Baltic States (here it is necessary to mention Ukraine, Belarus, the countries of the Caucasus and Central Asia and even the Far Eastern Republic - states, with some of which Russia even had option agreements; however, their implementation most often lagged behind the annexation of these countries by the RSFSR).

In 1921, under the auspices of the League of Nations, the Refugees Settlement Comission was created, chaired by Fridtjof Nansen. In 1931, the so-called "Nansen-Amt Office" was founded, and in 1933 the refugee convention was concluded. International (so-called "Nansen") passports, together with the help of the Nansen Foundation and other organizations, helped millions of people to survive and assimilate, including Jewish refugees from Germany.

Second wave (1941-1944)- persons displaced outside the borders of the USSR during the Second World War and evading repatriation to their homeland (“defectors”). Our analysis of the forced repatriation of Soviet citizens led us to estimate the number of "defectors" at no more than 0.5-0.7 million people, including citizens of the Baltic republics (but not including Poles who repatriated from the USSR shortly after the war).

Third Wave (1948 - 1989/1990)- this is, in fact, the entire emigration of the period " cold war”, So to speak, between the late Stalin and the early Gorbachev. Quantitatively, it fits into approximately half a million people, that is, it is close to the results of the "second wave".

Fourth wave (1990 - present)- this is, in fact, the first more or less civilized emigration to russian history... As noted by Zh.A. Zayochkovskaya, " ... it is more and more characterized by features typical of emigration from many countries in our time, it is predetermined not by political, as before, but by economic factors that push people to go to other countries in search of higher earnings, prestigious work, a different quality of life, etc. P.". Its quantitative estimates need to be updated annually, since this wave, although not in full swing, is far from over.

A. Akhiezer proposed the following six-part scheme for the periodization of emigration from Russia - three stages before the revolution and three stages after, namely: 1) before 1861; 2) 1861-1890s; 3) 1890s - 1914; 4) 1917-1952; 5) 1952 - 1992 and 6) after January 1, 1993 - the date of entry into force of the Law on Entry and Exit, adopted by the People's Deputies of the USSR in 1991. Obviously, the fourth stage corresponds to the so-called “first and second waves” of emigration from Soviet Russia, to the fifth - “the third wave”, to the sixth - “fourth” (partially). It seems that the unification of the first two "waves" in one period is hardly historically justified, as well as as the countdown of the last - post-totalitarian - period since 1993: the said Law was more or less a formality, - Gorbachev's liberalization became a much more significant event from a practical point of view ethnic migrations at the turn of 1986-1987, which led to a sharp jump in emigration in 1987 and to its real "boom" already in 1990.

Emigration and Revolution ("First Wave")

Let's start, naturally, with First emigrant wave... It is also called White emigration, and it's clear why. After the defeats of the White Army in the Northwest, the first military emigrants were units of the army of General Yudenich, interned in 1918 in Estonia. After the defeats in the East, another center of the emigration diaspora (about 400 thousand people) was formed in Manchuria with its center in Harbin. After defeats in the South, steamers leaving the Black Sea ports in the rear of the retreating Denikin and Wrangel troops (mainly Novorossiysk, Sevastopol and Odessa), as a rule, headed for Constantinople, which for a time became "Little Russia".

Before the revolution, the size of the Russian colony in Manchuria amounted to at least 200-220 thousand people, and by November 1920 - already at least 288 thousand people. With the abolition of the status of extraterritoriality for Russian citizens in China on September 23, 1920, the entire Russian population in it, including refugees, moved to the unenviable position of unforgiving emigrants in a foreign state, that is, to the position of a de facto diaspora. Throughout the turbulent period of the Civil War in the Far East (1918-1922), there was a significant mechanical movement of the population, which, however, consisted not only in the influx of the population, but also in its significant outflow - as a result of Kolchak, Semenov and other mobilizations, re-emigration and repatriation to Bolshevik Russia.

The first serious stream of Russian refugees in the Far East dates back to the beginning of 1920 - the time when the Omsk directory had already fallen; the second - in October-November 1920, when the army of the so-called "Russian Eastern outskirts" under the command of ataman G.M. Semyonov (his regular troops alone numbered more than 20 thousand people; they were disarmed and interned in the so-called "Tsitsikar camps", after which they were resettled by the Chinese to the Grodekovo region in the south of Primorye); and finally, the third, by the end of 1922, when Soviet power was finally established in the region (only a few thousand people left by sea, the main stream of refugees was sent from Primorye to Manchuria and Korea, to China, on the Chinese Eastern Railway, with some exceptions, they were not allowed through; some even sent to Soviet Russia).

It should be pointed out that, along with the "white", in China, in particular, in 1918-1922 in Shanghai, for some time there was a "red" emigration, however, not numerous (about 1 thousand people). After the end of the civil war in Primorye, most of the revolutionaries returned to Far East... In November 1922 - as if "to replace" them - 4.5 thousand white emigrants arrived on the ships of the squadrons of Rear Admirals Stark and Bezoir; in September 1923, they were joined by the remnants of the Far Eastern flotilla with refugees on board. The situation of the emigrant colony in Shanghai, in comparison with Europe and Harbin, was incomparably more difficult, also due to the impossibility of competing with the Chinese in the field of unskilled labor. The second largest, but perhaps the first entrepreneurial Russian emigrant colony in inner China was the community in Tianjin. In the 1920s, about two thousand Russians lived here, and in the 1930s there were already about 6 thousand Russians. Several hundred Russian emigrants each settled in Beijing and Hangzhou.

At the same time, in China, namely in Xinjiang in the north-west of the country, there was another significant (more than 5.5 thousand people) Russian colony, consisting of the Cossacks of General Bakich and former officials of the White Army who retreated here after defeats in the Urals and in Semirechye: they settled in the countryside and engaged in agricultural work.

The total population of the Russian colonies in Manchuria and China in 1923, when the war had already ended, was estimated at about 400 thousand people. Of this number, at least 100 thousand received Soviet passports in 1922-1923, many of them - at least 100 thousand people - repatriated to the RSFSR (the amnesty announced on November 3, 1921 to ordinary members of the White Guard formations also played a role here). During the 1920s, significant (sometimes up to tens of thousands of people a year) were also the re-emigration of Russians to other countries, especially young people aspiring to universities (in particular, to the USA, Australia and South America, as well as Europe).

The first stream of refugees to South of Russia took place also in early 1920. Back in May 1920, General Wrangel established the so-called "Emigration Council", a year later renamed the Council for the Resettlement of Russian Refugees. Civilian and military refugees were settled in camps near Constantinople, on the Princes' Islands and in Bulgaria; the military camps at Gallipoli, Chatalje and Lemnos (the Kuban camp) were under British or French administration. The last operations to evacuate the Wrangel army took place from 11 to 14 November 1920: 15 thousand Cossacks, 12 thousand officers and 4-5 thousand soldiers of regular units, 10 thousand cadets, 7 thousand wounded officers, more than 30 thousand officers and officials were loaded on ships rear and up to 60 thousand civilians, mainly family members of officers and officials. It was this, the Crimean, wave of evacuees that the emigration was given especially hard.

At the end of 1920, the card file of the Main Information (or Registration) Bureau already numbered 190,000 names with addresses. At the same time, the number of the military was estimated at 50-60 thousand people, and civilian refugees - at 130-150 thousand people.

The most prominent “refugees” (aristocrats, officials, and businessmen) were usually able to pay for tickets, visas and other fees. Within one or two weeks in Constantinople, they settled all the formalities and went on to Europe, mainly to France and Germany: by the beginning of November 1920, according to the data of the Red Army intelligence, their number had reached 35-40 thousand people.

By the end of the winter of 1921, only the poorest and the poor, as well as the military, remained in Constantinople. A spontaneous re-evacuation began, especially of the peasants and prisoners of the Red Army, who did not fear reprisals. By February 1921, the number of such re-emigrants had reached 5,000. In March, another 6.5 thousand Cossacks were added to them. Over time, it took on an organized form.

In the spring of 1921, General Wrangel turned to the Bulgarian and Yugoslav governments with a request for the possibility of settling the Russian army on their territory. In August, consent was obtained: Yugoslavia (the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes) accepted the Cavalry Division of Barbovich, the Kuban and part of the Don Cossacks (with weapons; their duties included border guards and government work) at the public expense, and Bulgaria - the entire 1- 1st corps, military schools and part of the Don Cossacks (without weapons). At the same time, about 20% of the army's personnel left the army and became refugees.

About 35 thousand Russian emigrants (mostly military) were resettled in various, mainly Balkan countries: 22 thousand ended up in Serbia, 5 thousand in Tunisia (the port of Bizerte), 4 thousand in Bulgaria and 2 thousand each to Romania and Greece.

Worthy of being mentioned and so statistically negligible, but politicallyThe “loud” emigration action of Soviet Russia as the deportation of humanitarian scientists in 1922. It took place in the fall of 1922: two famous “ philosophical steamer”Brought from Petrograd to Germany (Stettin) about 50 outstanding Russian humanitarians (together with their family members - about 115 people). In a similar way, prominent politicians such as Dan, Kuskova, Prokopovich, Peshekhonov, Ladyzhensky were expelled from the USSR. Apparently, the Decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee "On Administrative Expulsion" of August 10, 1922 was applied to both.

The League of Nations achieved some success in helping Russian emigrants. F. Nansen, the famous Norwegian polar explorer appointed in February 1921 by the Commissioner for Russian Refugees, introduced special identity cards for them (the so-called “Nansen passports”), which were eventually recognized in 31 countries of the world. With the help of the Refugees Settlement Comission, created by Nansen, about 25,000 refugees were employed (mainly in the USA, Austria, Belgium, Germany, Hungary and Czechoslovakia).

The total number of emigrants from Russia, as of November 1, 1920, according to the estimates of the American Red Cross, was 1,194 thousand; later this estimate was increased to 2,092,000. The most authoritative estimate of the number of “white emigration” given by A. and E. Kulishera also speaks of 1.5-2.0 million people. It was based, among other things, on sample data from the League of Nations, which, as of August 1921, recorded more than 1.4 million refugees from Russia. This number also included 100 thousand German colonists, 65 thousand Latvians, 55 thousand Greeks and 12 thousand Karelians. According to the countries of arrival, emigrants were distributed as follows (thousand people): Poland - 650, Germany - 300, France - 250, Romania - 100, Yugoslavia - 50, Greece - 31, Bulgaria - 30, Finland - 19, Turkey - 11 and Egypt - 3.

At the same time, V. Kabuzan estimates the total number of those who emigrated from Russia in 1918-1924 at no less than 5 million people, including about 2 million. optants, that is, residents of the former Russian (Polish and Baltic) provinces that became part of the newly formed sovereign states

Separating emigration from option is a very difficult, but still important task: in 1918-1922, the total number of emigrants and repatriates was (for a number of countries, selectively): to Poland - 4.1 million people, to Latvia - 130 thousand people, to Lithuania - 215 thousand people. Many, especially in Poland, were actually transit emigrants and did not stay there for long.

In 1922, according to N.A. Struve, the total number of Russian emigration was 863 thousand people, in 1930 it decreased to 630 thousand and in 1937 - to 450 thousand people. The territorial distribution of Russian emigration is presented in table. 1.

Table 1. Distribution of Russian emigration by countries and regions (1922-1937,%)

COUNTRIES AND REGIONS
Far East
Germany
Balkan countries
Finland and the Baltic states
Countries Center. Europe
Other European countries

Source: STRUVE; 1996, p. 300-301

According to incomplete data from the League of Nations Refugee Service, in 1926, 755,300 Russians and 205,700 Armenian refugees were officially registered. More than half of the Russians - about 400 thousand people - were then received by France; there were 76 thousand of them in China, in Yugoslavia, Latvia, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria about 30-40 thousand people each (in 1926, there were about 220 thousand settlers from Russia in Bulgaria). Most Armenians found refuge in Syria, Greece and Bulgaria (respectively, about 124, 42 and 20 thousand people).

Having fulfilled the role of the main transshipment base for emigration, Constantinople has lost its significance over time. The recognized centers of the “first emigration” (also called White) were, at its next stage, Berlin and Harbin (before its occupation by the Japanese in 1936), as well as Belgrade and Sofia. The Russian population of Berlin numbered about 200 thousand people in 1921, it was especially affected during the years of the economic crisis, and by 1925 there were only 30 thousand people left. Later, Prague and Paris came to the fore. The rise to power of the Nazis further alienated the Russian emigrants from Germany. Prague and, in particular, Paris came to the fore in the emigration. Even on the eve of World War II, but especially during the hostilities and soon after the war, there was a tendency for a part of the first emigration to move to the United States.

Thus, despite the tangible Asian part, the first emigration can literally be designated as predominantly European. The question of its ethnic composition defies quantitative assessment, but the noticeable predominance of Russians and other Slavs is also quite obvious. Compared with the pre-revolutionary emigration from Russia, the participation of Jews in the "first wave" is rather modest: the emigration of Jews took place not on ethnic, but rather on general socio-political grounds.

As a historical phenomenon, the “first emigration” is unique both quantitatively and qualitatively. It became, firstly, one of the largest emigration movements in world history, which took place in an unusually short time. Secondly, it marked the transfer to a foreign soil of an entire social and cultural stratum, for the existence of which there were no longer sufficient prerequisites in the homeland: by an incredible exertion of forces in exile, such key concepts and categories as monarchism, estate, churchliness were preserved and saved. and private property. " Now in exile,- wrote V. Davatz, - found all the elements of a territorialless Russian statehood, not only not in a friendly, but in a hostile environment. All this mass of people outside their homeland has become a true "Russia in small", that new phenomenon that does not fit into the usual framework”.

Thirdly, the widespread behavioral paradigm of this wave (partly connected with the unjustified hope for its forced and short-term nature) has become a closure on its own environment, the installation to recreate as many of the public institutions available in the homeland as possible and the actual (and, of course, temporary ) refusal to integrate into a new society. Fourthly, the polarization of the emigre mass itself and, in a broad sense, the degradation of a significant part of it, with an amazing predisposition to internal conflicts and strife, were also unfortunate conclusions that have to be stated.

Emigration between the Civil and Patriotic Wars

In addition to the White emigration, the first post-revolutionary decade also saw fragments of ethnic (and, at the same time, religious) emigration - Jewish (about 100 thousand people, almost all to Palestine) and German (about 20-25 thousand people), and the most massive type of emigration was labor, so typical for Russia before the First World War, after 1917 on the territory of the USSR practically ceased, or, more precisely, was terminated.

According to some data, between 1923 and 1926 about 20 thousand Germans (mainly Mennonites) emigrated to Canada, and according to others, in 1925-1930 they emigrated about 24 thousand people, of whom 21 thousand left for Canada, and the rest - to South America. In 1922-1924, about 20 thousand German families living in Ukraine applied for emigration to Germany, but only 8 thousand received permission from the German authorities. At the same time, the statistics of immigration of Soviet Germans to Germany in 1918-1933, according to the German Foreign Ministry, is as follows: about 3 thousand people entered in 1918-1922, about 20 thousand in 1923-1928 and about 6 thousand in 1929-1933. There is evidence of massive "campaigns" in the 1920s of thousands of German families seeking to leave the USSR, to Moscow, to the embassies of countries that refuse to admit them: in 1923 - to the German embassy (16 thousand people), and at the end of 1929 year - to the Canadian Embassy (18 thousand people). The refusal was also met by the appeal of the Dukhobors and Molokans of the Salsk district to leave for the same Canada.

Speaking about the 1920s, one should also mention some "echoes" of the Civil War, which was waged in certain regions of Central Asia until the mid-1930s. So, in the early 1920s (no later than 1924), about 40 thousand dekhan (peasant) farms from Tajikistan (or, approximately, 200-250 thousand people) emigrated to the northern provinces of Afghanistan, which constituted a significant part of the population of Eastern Bukhara and led to a sharp reduction in cotton crops. Of these, during 1925-1927, only about 7 thousand households, or about 40 thousand people, were repatriated. It is significant that the returnees were settled not where they fled from, but mainly in the Vakhsh valley, which was dictated by the interests of the state in its development.

Serious factors of emigration in the 1930s. (at least in Central Asia and Kazakhstan, where the border regime was still more or less conventional) collectivization and the resulting famine began. Thus, an extremely difficult situation developed in 1933 in Kazakhstan, where, as a result of hunger and collectivization, the livestock population decreased by 90%. The "Great Leap Forward" in animal husbandry (up to the general socialization of livestock, even small ones) and the policy of compulsory " subsidence"nomadic and semi-nomadic Kazakh people turned into not only hunger and death from 1 to 2 million people, but also mass migration of Kazakhs... She, according to Zelenin's data, covered at least 400 thousand families, or about 2 million people, and according to Abylkhozhin et al. - 1030 thousand people, of which 414 thousand returned to Kazakhstan, about the same settled in the RSFSR and the republics of Central Asia, and the remaining 200 thousand went abroad - to China, Mongolia, Afghanistan, Iran and Turkey. Of course, this was a rather lengthy process that began at the end of 1931 and grew from the spring of 1932 to the spring of 1933.

Emigration and the Great Patriotic War ("Second Wave")

As for the Soviet citizens themselves, never before has such a number of them been simultaneously abroad, as in the years of the Great Patriotic War... True, this happened in most cases not only against the will of the state, but also against their own will.

We can talk about approximately 5.45 million civilians displaced in one way or another from the territory that belonged to the USSR before the war, to the territory that belonged or was controlled before the war by the Third Reich or its allies. Taking into account 3.25 million prisoners of war, the total number of Soviet citizens deported outside the USSR was, in our estimate, about 8.7 million people

Table 2. Persons who lived on the territory of the USSR before the war and were displaced during the war abroad (to the territory of Germany, its allies or the countries occupied by them)

		Number
		million people
	Civil internees
	Prisoners of war
	Ostovtsy (ostarbeiters - "easterners")
	"Westerners"
	Volksdeutsche
	Finns-Ingrian
	"Refugees"
	"Evacuees"

Note

Source: Polyan P.M. Victims of two dictatorships: life, work, humiliation and death of Soviet prisoners of war and Ostarbeiters in a foreign land and at home / Preface. D. Granin. M .: ROSSPEN, 2002. (Edition 2, revised and enlarged), pp. 135-136.

Let us consider individual contingents of USSR citizens who found themselves during the war years in Germany and on the territory of her allied or occupied countries (see Table 2). First is soviet prisoners of war. Second and third, civilians forcibly taken to the Reich: this ostovtsy,or ostarbeiters, in the German understanding of this term, which corresponds to the Soviet term ostarbeiters - "orientalists" (that is, workers taken out of the old Soviet regions), and ostarbeiters - "Westerners"who lived in areas annexed by the USSR in accordance with the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. Fourth, it is volksdeutsche and Volksfinns, that is, the Germans and Finns are Soviet citizens, whom the NKVD simply did not manage to deport after the majority of their fellow tribesmen, who for many years became "special settlers". Fifth and sixth, these are the so-called “Refugees and evacuees”, That is, Soviet civilians, taken out or independently rushed to Germany after (or rather, before) the retreating Wehrmacht. Refugees were mainly people who in one way or another collaborated with the German administration and for this reason did not harbor any special illusions about their future after the restoration of Soviet power; the evacuees, on the contrary, were taken away no less violently than the classic "ostarbeiters", thereby clearing the territory left to the enemy from the population, which, otherwise, could be used against the Germans. Nevertheless, in the scant statistics that we have about them, both categories are usually combined. The seventh, and if chronologically, then the first, category was civilian internees- that is, diplomats, employees of trade and other missions and delegations of the USSR, sailors, railway workers, etc. etc., caught by the beginning of the war in Germany and interned (as a rule, directly on June 22, 1941) on its territory. Quantitatively, this category is insignificant.

Some of these people did not live to see victory (especially many of them among the prisoners of war), most of them repatriated to their homeland, but many evaded repatriation and remained in the West, becoming the nucleus of the so-called “Second Wave” of emigration from the USSR. The maximum quantitative assessment of this wave is approximately 500-700 thousand people, most of them are immigrants from Western Ukraine and the Baltic states. (participation in this emigration of Jews, for obvious reasons, was vanishingly small).

Initially fully concentrated in Europe as part of a wider mass of DPs, or displaced persons, many of the second wave left the Old World during 1945-1951 and moved to Australia, South America, Canada, but especially the United States. The proportion of those who ultimately remained in Europe lends itself only to a rough estimate, but in any case it is in no way more than a third or a quarter. Thus, in the second wave, in comparison with the first, the level of "Europeanness" is significantly lower.

Thus, we can talk about approximately 5.45 million civilians, one way or another displaced from the territory belonging to the USSR before the war, to the territory that belonged or was controlled by the Third Reich or its allies before the war. Taking into account 3.25 million prisoners of war, the total number of Soviet citizens deported outside the USSR was, in our estimate, about 8.7 million people

We will try, at least approximately, to sum up the demographic balance of forced deportations of Soviet citizens to Germany and their repatriation. The data for correct comparison of the degree of repatriation for all those indicated in table. We do not have 3 categories, so the following table has been compiled largely by experts.

Table 3. Persons who lived on the territory of the USSR before the war and found themselves during the war on the territory of Germany and its allied countries in relation to repatriation to the USSR

		Number
		million people
	TOTAL, including
	Died or killed
	Repatriated by the Germans ("returners")
	Self-patriotic
	Repatriated by the state
	Shied away from repatriation ("defectors")

Note: Estimates and inconclusive calculations.

Source: Polyan P.M. Victims of two dictatorships: life, work, humiliation and death of Soviet prisoners of war and Ostarbeiters in a foreign land and at home / Preface. D. Granin. M .: ROSSPEN, 2002. (Edition 2, revised and enlarged), p.143.

How many “defectors” of Soviet origin remained in the West after World War II?

According to one of the official estimates made by the Repatriation Office based on incomplete data by January 1, 1952, 451,561 Soviet citizens were still abroad. Our estimate - about 700 thousand people - is based on the realistic assumption that a significant part of DPs acted at their own risk and tried in every possible way to avoid registration and assistance even from international organizations.

If in 1946 more than 80% of the defectors were inside the western occupation zones in Germany and Austria, now they accounted for only about 23% of their number. So, in all six western zones Germany and Austria had 103.7 thousand people, while in England alone - 100.0, Australia - 50.3, Canada - 38.4, USA - 35.3, Sweden - 27.6, France - 19.7 and Belgium - 14.7 thousand “temporarily unrepatriated”. In this regard, the ethnic structure of the defectors is very expressive. Most of them were Ukrainians - 144,934 people (or 32.1%), followed by three Baltic peoples - Latvians (109,214 people, or 24.2%), Lithuanians (63401, or 14.0%) and Estonians (58924, or 13.0%). All of them, together with 9856 Belarusians (2.2%), accounted for 85.5% of the registered defectors. Actually, this is, with some coarsening and overestimation, the quota of “Westerners” (in Zemskov's terminology) in the structure of this contingent. According to V.N. Zemskov, “Westerners” accounted for 3/4, and “Easterners” - only 1/4 of the number of defectors. But most likely the share of “Westerners” is even higher, especially if we assume that a sufficient number of Poles have entered the category of “others” (33,528 people, or 7.4%). The number of Russians among the defectors is only 31704, or 7.0%.

In light of this, the scale of Western estimates of the number of defectors becomes understandable, an order of magnitude lower than the Soviet ones and, as it were, oriented towards the number of ethnic Russians in this environment. So, according to M. Proudfoot, about 35 thousand former Soviet citizens are officially registered as “remaining in the West”.

But be that as it may, Stalin's fears were justified and tens and hundreds of thousands of former Soviet or sub-Soviet citizens in one way or another, by hook or by crook, but avoided repatriation and nevertheless made up the so-called “ second emigration”.

Emigration and the Cold War ("third wave")

Third Wave (1948-1986)- this is, in fact, all the emigration of the Cold War period, so to speak, between the late Stalin and the early Gorbachev. Quantitatively, it fits into approximately half a million people, that is, it is close to the results of the "second wave".

Qualitatively, it consists of two very dissimilar components: the first is made up of not quite standard emigrants - forcibly expelled ("expelled") and defectors, the second is "normal" emigrants, although "normalcy" was a thing for that time so specific and exhausting (with levies for education, with accusatory meetings of labor and even school collectives and other types of harassment) that it did not fit well with real democratic norms.

Special and very specific immigrants were all sorts of defectors and defectors. The “KGB wanted list” for 470 people, of which 201 went to Germany (including 120 in the American zone, 66 in the English zone, and 5 in the French zone), 59 to Austria. Most of them settled in the USA - 107, in the FRG - 88, in Canada - 42, in Sweden - 28, in England - 25, etc. Since 1965, "trials in absentia" over defectors have been replaced by "arrest orders."

Quantitatively, of course, “normal” emigrants dominated. The total indicators of the third wave, according to S. Haitman, are as follows: in 1948-1986 about 290,000 Jews, 105,000 Soviet Germans and 52,000 Armenians left the USSR. Within this period, S. Haitman distinguishes three specific substages: 1948-1970, 1971-1980 and 1980-1985 (see Table 4):

Table 4. Emigration of Jews, Germans and Armenians from the USSR (1948-1985)

Periods	Jews, people	Jews,%	Germans, people	Germans, %	Armenians, people	Armenians,%	Total, people	Total,%	Average

Source: Heitman S. The Third Soviet Emigration: Jewish, German and Armenian Emigration from the USSR since World War II // Berichte des Bundesinstituts für ostwissenschaftliche und internationale Studien №21, 1987, p.24 (figures are rounded off).

Until the 1980s, Jews constituted the majority, and more often the decisive majority of emigrants from the USSR. At the first substage, which gave only 9% of the “third emigration,” the Jewish emigration, although leading, did not dominate (only a 2-fold superiority over the Armenian and quite insignificant - over the German emigration). But at the most massive second m sub-stage (which gave 86% of Jewish emigration for the entire period), even with the amicable, almost 3-fold growth of German and Armenian emigration, Jewish emigration firmly dominated (with a share of 72%), and only at the third stage it lost the leadership of emigration to the German ...

In some years (for example, in 1980), the number of Armenian emigrants was almost equal to German emigrants, and they were characterized by unofficial emigration (the channel of which was most likely non-return after a visit to relatives).

At the first stage, almost all Jews rushed to the "promised land" - Israel, of which about 14 thousand people not directly, but through Poland. On the second, the picture changed: only 62.8% of Jewish emigrants were sent to Israel, the rest preferred the United States (33.5%) or other countries (primarily Canada and European countries). At the same time, the number of those who went directly with an American visa was relatively small (during 1972-1979 it never exceeded 1000 people). The majority left with an Israeli visa, but with the actual right to choose between Israel and the United States during a transit stop in Vienna: here the bill went not to hundreds, but to thousands of human souls. It was then that many Soviet Jews settled in large European capitals, primarily in Vienna and Rome, which served as a kind of staging base for Jewish emigration in the 1970s and 1980s; later the stream was also directed through Budapest, Bucharest and other cities (but there were also many who, having arrived in Israel, moved from there to the USA).

Interestingly, at this stage, Jews were very active in emigration - immigrants from Georgia and the annexed by the USSR the Baltic States, Western Ukraine and Northern Bukovina (mainly from cities - primarily Riga, Lvov, Chernivtsi, etc.), where - with the exception of Georgia - anti-Semitism was especially “honored”. As a rule, these were deeply religious Jews, often with uninterrupted family ties in the West.

Since the late 1970s, the purely Jewish emigration has split in two and almost equally, even with a slight margin in favor of the United States, especially when you consider those who moved there from Israel. The US championship lasted from 1978 to 1989, that is, in those years when the flow of Jewish emigrants itself was small or negligible. But the huge "backlog" of people on the waiting list and refuseniks accumulated over previous years, it was predetermined that, starting in 1990, when Israel accounted for 85% of Jewish emigration, it is again and firmly in the lead. (However, this leadership was cut short after only 12 years, when in 2002 - for the first time in the history of Jewish immigration from the USSR - Germany took the first place among the host countries!)

At the same time, in general, the third wave can be considered the most ethnized (there were simply no other mechanisms to leave, except along the Jewish, German or Armenian lines) and at the same time the least European of all of the listed: its leaders were alternately Israel and the United States. And only in the 1980s, when the Jewish ethnic migration was overtaken by the German one, there was also a turn in its course towards "Europeanization" - a trend that manifested itself to an even greater extent in the "fourth wave" (specific also to the new - German - direction of the Jewish emigration).

Emigration and Perestroika ("The Fourth Wave")

The beginning of this period should be counted from the era of M.S. Gorbachev, but, incidentally, not from his very first steps, but rather from the “second”, among which the most important were the withdrawal of troops from Afghanistan, the liberalization of the press and the rules for entering and leaving the country. The actual beginning (more precisely, the resumption) of Jewish emigration under Gorbachev dates back to April 1987, but statistically this showed itself with some delay. Let us repeat that this period, in fact, continues now, so its quantitative estimates need to be updated annually.

In any case, they turned out to be much more modest than those apocalyptic forecasts about the "ninth wave" of emigration from the former USSR, with a capacity of, according to various estimates, from 3 to 20 million people, which the West, even purely economically, would not have been able to do. endure. In fact, nothing "terrible" happened in the West. Legal emigration from the USSR was well protected by the laws of all western countries and is still limited to representatives of only a few nationalities, for which - again, only a few of their host countries - have a certain legal and social infrastructure.

We are talking primarily about ethnic Germans and Jews (to a lesser extent - about Greeks and Armenians, to an even lesser extent and most recently - about Poles and Koreans). In particular, Israel created legal guarantees for the immigration (repatriation) of Jews, and Germany - for the immigration of Germans and Jews who lived in the territory of b. THE USSR.

So, according to the German Constitution and the Law on the Expelled (Bundesvertriebenengesetz), the FRG undertook to accept for settlement and citizenship all persons of German nationality who were subjected in the 40s. expulsion from their native lands and living outside Germany. They came and come either in the status of “expelled” (Vertriebene), or in the status of “settlers” or so-called “late settlers” (Aussiedler or Spätaussiedler) and almost immediately, on the first application, they receive German citizenship.

In 1950, about 51 thousand Germans lived in the FRG, who were born in the territory that was part of the USSR until 1939. This turned out to be important for the beginning of German immigration from the Soviet Union, since at its first stage the Soviet side met halfway mainly in cases of family reunification. The actual German emigration from the USSR to the FRG began in 1951, when 1,721 ethnic Germans left for their homeland. On February 22, 1955, the Bundestag adopted a decision on the recognition of the FRG citizenship, adopted during the war, which extended the effect of the “Law on the Expelled” to all Germans living in Eastern Europe. By May 1956, the German embassy in Moscow had accumulated about 80,000 applications from Soviet Germans to leave for the FRG. In 1958-1959, the number of German emigrants was 4-5.5 thousand people. For a long time, the record was the result of 1976 (9704 immigrants). In 1987, the 10-thousandth milestone fell (14488 people), after which almost every year the bar rose to new heights (people): 1988 - 47572, 1989 - 98134, 1990 - 147,950, 1991 - 147,320, 1992 - 195950, 1993 - 207347 and 1994 - 213,214 people. In 1995, the bar withstood (209,409 people), and in 1996 - moved down (172,181 people), which is explained not so much by the policy of re-creating favorable conditions for Germans living in Kazakhstan, Russia, etc., as by the tightening of resettlement regulations undertaken by the German government. , in particular, by measures to attach the settlers to the lands assigned to them (including the eastern ones, where about 20% now live), but in particular by the obligation to pass an examination on knowledge german language (Sprachtest) is still in place (at the exam, as a rule, at least 1/3 of those admitted to it "fail").

Nevertheless, the 1990s were, in fact, the time of the most landslide exodus russian Germans from the republics of the former USSR. In total, 1,549,490 Germans and members of their families moved from there to the Federal Republic of Germany in 1951-1996. According to some estimates, Germans “by passport” (that is, those who arrived on the basis of §4 of the “Law on the Expelled”) make up about 4/5 of them: another 1/5 are their spouses, descendants and relatives (mainly Russians and Ukrainians ). By the beginning of 1997, in Kazakhstan, according to the same estimates, less than 1/3 of the Germans who had previously lived there, in Kyrgyzstan - 1/6, and in Tajikistan, the German contingent is practically exhausted. The intensity of German emigration from Russia is much lower; moreover, there is a noticeable German immigration from the Central Asian states to Russia.

Some results and trends

So what are the Soviet emigration trends like?

The first trend is internal political: there is an undoubted increase in the legitimacy (but also civilization!) Of emigration. The emigrants of the Cold War are still “traitors to their homeland,” but they leave legitimately and sanctioned, according to certain rules: therefore, there is no need to kill them, but to poison and stigmatize - as much as you want.

The second trend is mental: from the deliberately assumed cross of preserving and protecting the specific values \u200b\u200bof Russian self-identity in exile (with a patriotic-monarchical bias) and from exile itself as a vessel, or a preserve (or even a ghetto) for the latter, to the cosmopolitan attitude of the Jewish (and partly German) of young people for accelerated integration into Western life and maximum separation from the Soviet values, partly still shared by the generation of their own parents, who also emigrated.

The third trend is cultural and geographical: Russian emigration began as emigration to Europe, but until the 1980s, the role of Europe in the Soviet emigration flow was steadily declining. If in the “first wave” it clearly dominated over Asia and America, and was internally widely represented (Serbia, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Germany or France), then in the “second wave” Europe served as nothing more than a springboard to the New World, mainly , to the USA, South America and Australia (by the way, representatives of the "first wave" also reached there at that time). The "de-Europeanization" of emigration from the USSR intensified even more in the "third wave", but only up to a certain time limit - the early 1980s, when the role of "Europeanizers" of the emigration flow was assumed by the Soviet Germans, who lived at that time, mainly, in the Asian part of the USSR (in the 1990s, Jews "joined" them, and Germany began to accept them).

The position of the Russian Federation on the “migration” map is contradictory: it is referred to both countries of immigration and countries of emigration. For residents of the former republics of the USSR, Russia is still more attractive and safe, they provide 98% of the "entry" to the Russian Federation.

But in relation to the developed states of the West, the Russian Federation traditionally acts as a country of "departure". The emigration flow is significantly inferior to the immigration one. Nevertheless, it is quite important because usually the most active, educated, hardworking part of the population leaves. In addition, the analysis of recorded emigration indirectly characterizes hidden emigration. Specialists who go on long-term internships and work in Western firms usually strive to gain a foothold there and stay forever.

The size of emigration jumped noticeably in the late 1980s, when Gorbachev's liberalization of entry and exit into the USSR began to take effect. For the first time in the history of Russia's external migration, emigration acquired civilized features. Over the past 10-12 years, more than 1 million people have left the Russian Federation for the far abroad only officially and for permanent residence. Annual emigration amounted to an average of 80 to 100 thousand people, that is, almost the same as in the previous decade from the entire USSR.

In the last two or three years, there has been a tendency towards a reduction in entry and exit from Russia, which is accompanied by an increase in the share of Russia's close neighbors. Surges in emigration are directly related to the crisis phenomena, and its growth is quite possible if these phenomena continue to grow or persist.

The main flow of people leaving comes to three countries - Germany, Israel and the United States. For most countries, the increase in entry from Russia occurred during the periods of political and economic crises of 1991 and 1993, which prompted citizens who were not yet fully ripe to make a decision to leave.

However, the peak of emigration turned out to be extended; for different countries it did not come at the same time. The reasons for this are the presence of large contingents of potential emigrants, legitimate for the three mentioned countries of immigration, and the immigration policy of these states, as well as the socio-economic situation within Russia itself.

The structure of emigration, however, underwent other gradual changes. Israel and Greece were the first to reach the peak of immigration from Russia in 1990, accepting Soviet citizens who had long been "ready" for emigration. Further, the peak came for the USA (1993), which smoothly regulated the immigration flow from the former USSR. Later, it happened with Germany. Less mobile, compared to more urbanized Russian Jews and Greeks, Russian Germans left Russia most actively in 1993-1995.

The tendency of the last two years is that, since 1997, there has been a decrease in the total share of Germany, Israel and the United States - due to an increase in the share of other states. First of all, these are the closest neighbors of Russia, as well as countries whose fate in different historical periods was closely connected with the fate of the Russian state. Poles and Finns, in particular, reached their emigration maximum. Apparently, not seeing any special prospects in Russia, they felt that in their ethnic homeland - in Poland or Finland - they would be better off.

The number of people leaving for Canada and Australia is especially noticeable, which is associated with the relatively liberal immigration policies of both countries.

In the past two years, another problem has been exposed - the sharply increased after the conclusion of a bilateral agreement on this issue, Chinese immigration from China (mainly to Primorye), which, according to official figures, was about twice as large as their departure back. The PRC has joined a small circle of countries, mainly developing (Afghanistan, Pakistan, Korea, Bulgaria), which have a positive balance with the Russian Federation in the past two years, but differs from them in the significant size of migration exchange with the Russian Federation.

One of the most important factors in emigration is ethnicity. Among the countries of entry, the states stand out, emigration to which is largely ethnic in nature. This is primarily Germany and Israel, and Germany from the countries of the former USSR accepts not only Germans, but also Jews. The main share of rural emigration from Russia falls on Germany: these are Russian Germans from the Volga region, Western Siberia, North Caucasus.

The latter combines ethnic and religious principles and, to a certain extent, can also be regarded as religious.
Kabuzan V.M.Russians in the world: Dynamics of population and settlement (1719-1989). Formation of ethnic and political boundaries of the Russian people. SPb .: Blitz, 1996. And this is exactly the origin of the Kosovar Adygs who repatriated to Russia in 1998 after the aggravation of the internal political situation in Kosovo.
Obolensky (Osinsky) V.V. International and intercontinental migrations in pre-war Russia and the USSR. Moscow: TsSU USSR, 1928, p. 20.
Cabuzan, 1996, p. 313.
Popov A.V. Russian Diaspora and archives. Documents of the Russian emigration in the archives of Moscow: problems of identification, acquisition, description, use. Moscow: Historical and Archival Institute of the Russian State University for the Humanities, 1998, pp. 29-30.
With regard to the general periodization of Jewish immigration in the United States, which began on a modest scale in the middle of the 17th century, this wave constituted its third and most massive stage, extended by researchers from 1880 to 1924, when US immigration legislation was sharply tightened. The two previous stages were the immigration of Dutch, Spanish and Portuguese Sephardic Jews (from the middle of the 17th to the first quarter of the 19th centuries) and German, as well as Polish and Hungarian Ashkenazi Jews, who spoke mainly Yiddish (from the 1830s to the 1880s biennium). Of the approximately 250,000 Jews in the United States in 1877, 200,000 were German Jews. More than half of them settled in New York and the northeastern states, 20% each in the northern central and southern Atlantic states, and another 10% in the western states. It is to this wave of immigration of German Ashkenazim that the formation of the most modernized movement in Judaism (reformism) dates back. See: Nitoburg E.L. Jews in America at the End of the 20th Century. Moscow: Choro, 1996, pp. 4-8. Pushkareva N.L. Ways of the formation of the Russian diaspora after 1945 // Ethnographic review. - 1992. - No. 6. - P.18-19.
See: Felshtinsky Yu. On the history of our closeness. Legislative foundations of Soviet immigration and emigration policy. London: Overseas Publications Interchange Ltd, 1988, p. 70-78, 83-97.
Polyan P.M. Victims of two dictatorships: life, work, humiliation and death of Soviet prisoners of war and Ostarbeiters in a foreign land and at home / Preface. D. Granin. Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2002. (2nd edition, revised and added)
Zayonchkovskaya Zh.A. Emigration to the Far Abroad // Demoscope Weekly No. 27-28, July 30 - August 12, 2001
This “wave” is the subject of a special article by ZA.Zayonchkovskaya in this section of the monograph. Some of the latest trends in migration exchange with the so-called "far abroad", primarily Jewish and German emigration, are devoted to special articles by the author (P. Polyan "Westarbeiters": interned Germans in the USSR (prehistory, history, geography). special course. Stavropol; Moscow; Publishing house of SSU, 1999; Polyan PM, Not on their own. History and geography of forced migrations in the USSR. Moscow, 2001a, etc.). On the trends of migration exchange between Russia and the newly independent states that emerged in the place of the USSR, see other articles by Zh.A. Zayonchkovskaya in this edition. - Ed.
Melikhov, 1997, p. 195.
Melikhov, 1997, p. 58.
Pivovar E.Yu., Gerasimov N.P. et al., Russian emigration in Turkey, South-Eastern and Central Europe in the 1920s (civilian refugees, the army, educational institutions). Study guide for students. M .: Historical and Archival Institute of the Russian State University for the Humanities, 1994, p. 26, with reference to: GARF, f.5809, op.1, d.100, l.27.
RGVA, f.6, op.4, d.418, l.30-30ob .; file 596, sheet 187-187 rev .; f.33988, op.2, d.213, l.307.
Pivovar, Gerasimova et al., 1994, p. 10, with reference to: GARF, f.5809, op.1, d.98, l.189... Data for 1921 has not been preserved.
Of these, about 25 thousand children, 35 thousand women, up to 50 thousand men of draft age (from 21 to 43 years) and about 30 thousand elderly men (Pivovar, Gerasimova et al., 1994, p. 12, with reference on the: RGVA, f.33988, op.2, d.596, l.187ob .; f.7, op.2, d.734, l.10; f.109, op.3, d.360, l.4ob .; d.373, l.20).
Pivovar, Gerasimova et al., 1994, p. 11, with reference to: RGVA, f.101, op.1, file 148, l.58; f.102, op.3, d.584, l.89-90.
Pivovar, Gerasimova et al., 1994, p. 13, with reference to: RGVA, f.7, op.2, d.386, l.4; f.109, op.3, d.365, l.4ob .; d.373, l.22; f.33988, op.2, d.213, l.364ob.
Pivovar, Gerasimova et al., 1994, p. 19.
Pivovar, Gerasimova et al., 1994, p. 14, with reference to: GARF, f.5809, op.1, d.87, l.1.
09/28/1922 sailed and 09/30/1922 sailed the steamer "Oberburgomister Haken" with scientists from Moscow and Kazan (30 or 33 people, with family members - about 70), and on 11/15/1922 sailed and 11/18/1922 sailed the steamer "Prussia" with scientists from Petrograd (17 people, with family members - 44). All the deported were previously arrested (see: M. Geller, First warning: blow with the whip // Bulletin of the Russian student Christian movement. Paris, 1979, Issue 127. p. 187-232; Khoruzhy SS After a break. Ways of Russian philosophy . SPb., 1994, p. 188-208).
Felshtinsky, 1988, p. 149.
Pivovar, Gerasimova et al., 1994, p. 35. In 1931 the so-called "Nansen-Amt Office" was founded, and in 1933 the refugee convention was concluded. International Nansen Passports, together with the help of the Nansen Foundation, have helped millions of people survive and assimilate. Nansen-Amt worked until 1938, taking care of 800 thousand Russians and Ukrainians, as well as 170 thousand Armenian refugees from Turkey (later they had to deal with about 400 thousand Jewish refugees from Germany).
Pivovar, Gerasimova et al., 1994, p. 12, with reference to: RGVA, f.7, op.2, d.730, l.208, 251ob .; f.109, op.3, d.236, l.182; d.368, l.8ob.
Kulischer A., \u200b\u200bKulischer E.M. Kriege und Wanderzuge: Weltgeschichte als Volkerbewegung. Berlin, 1932. Following them, the same assessment is given by A. Polyakov and many other authors.
Kulischer E.M. Europe on the Move: War and Population Changes, 1917-1947. N.Y. Columbia UP, 1948, pp. 53-56. It is interesting that some of the emigrants were amnestied by the Soviet government and returned to the USSR, for example, 122 thousand Cossacks led by General Slashchev, who returned in 1922. By 1938, the number of returnees was nearly 200,000.
Reported by K. Stadnyuk (Donetsk).
In early 1930, Canada suspended the reception of Soviet Germans (reported by I. Silina, Barnaul).
Kurbanova Sh.I. Resettlement: How It Was. Dushanbe: Irfon, 1993, p. 56, with links to the Archives of the Communist Party of Tajikistan ( f.3, op.1, d.5, l.88 and f.3, op.5, d.3, l.187). The same author reports that in 1931 a considerable amount of foreign labor from Afghanistan, Iran and India arrived for the construction of the Vakhsh irrigation system (Kurbanova, 1993: 59-60).
It would be more correct to say - by "riding"!
Abylkhozhaev Zh.B., Kozybaev M.K., Tatimov M.B. Kazakhstani tragedy // Questions of history. 1989, No. 7 p.67-69.
Polyan P.M. Victims of two dictatorships: life, work, humiliation and death of Soviet prisoners of war and Ostarbeiters in a foreign land and at home. M, 2003, p. 566-576.
GARF. Form 9526, op. 1, d.7, p.3 (a similar figure is known for October 1951). The method for calculating this figure is not disclosed in the report, but it is possible that an attempt was made to somehow take into account those who happily escaped not only Soviet claims, but also Soviet registration. According to other - even less verifiable - information, the number of defectors ranged from 1.2 to 1.5 million people (which, on the contrary, seems to be definitely overstated).
GARF. Form 9526, op. 1, d.7, p.3-4.
Polyan, 2002, pp. 823-825. In addition, 4172 people remained in the European socialist countries (GARF. F.9526, op.1, d.7, p.3-6).
Polyan, 2002, p. 823-825.
Because of the "Easterners" posing as "Westernizers" (the opposite cases, we believe, are conceivable only in cases of sending intelligence officers to the USSR).
Zemskov V.N. On the issue of the repatriation of Soviet citizens 1944-1951 // History of the USSR No. 4 1990, pp. 37-38.
See: Proudfoot M.J. European Refugees. 1939-1952. A Study on Forced Population Movement. London, 1957, p. 217-218.
Stalin's death led to a certain softening of the regime. On September 1, 1953, the Special Meeting at the NKVD-MGB of the USSR was abolished, condemning 442,531 people for the incomplete 19 years of its existence, of which 10,101 people were sentenced to be shot. (RGANI , f.89, op.18, d.33, l.1-5). The majority (360,921 people) were sentenced to various terms of imprisonment, another 67,539 people were sentenced to exile and deportation within the USSR, and 3970 people were sentenced to other punishments, including forced expulsion abroad (See note C dated December 1953. . Kruglov and R. Rudenko to N. Khrushchev). The most famous exiled is apparently Trotsky.
Data from the emigrant magazine "Posev".
Petrov N. Soviet defectors // Sowing number 1, 1987, pp. 56-60.
Heitman S. The Third Soviet Emigration: Jewish, German and Armenian Emigration from the USSR since World War II // Berichte des Bundesinstituts für ostwissenschaftliche und internationale Studien No. 21, 1987.
It is interesting that, according to some estimates, the number of Armenians who left the USSR in 1989 and 1990 ranged from 50 to 60 thousand people (summary table compiled by M. Feshbach according to the Israeli Embassy in the United States; Israeli Ministry of Absorption; HIAS; Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Ministry of Internal Affairs Germany; reception center in Friedland; Association of Russian Germans; US State Department and S. Heitman).
According to E.L. Nitoburg, there are a total of 200 thousand such persons, who actually retain dual citizenship in the United States (Nitoburg, 1996: 128).
Gitelman, 1995.
It should be noted that earlier the Armenian emigration played more essential rolethan now. In the 1950s, 12 thousand people emigrated to France, and over the next 30 years - 40 thousand people in the United States (see: Heitman . ,1987).
Krieger V. At the beginning of the journey. Ch3: Demographic and migration processes among the German population of the USSR (CIS) // Oriental Express (Alain) No. 8, 1997 p. five.
For: Krieger, 1997.

The above processes of the development of new lands and the expansion of Russian state borders refer to internal migration (one of the main types of migration movement is a set of human movements carried out within the territorial boundaries of states. In terms of its scale, it usually significantly exceeds international migration). And now let's touch on international (interstate) migration and emigration of Russian citizens.

Migration and emigration in the pre-revolutionary period.

The history of international (interstate) migration and emigration of Russian citizens goes back several centuries, if we take into account the forced flight abroad of political figures back in the Middle Ages. For example: salvation from the persecution of the Orthodox Church and the Moscow grand-ducal power in Lithuania and “among the Germans” at the beginning of the 16th century. Novgorod-Moscow heretics, as well as the transition in 1564 to the side of the Poles of Prince Andrei Kurbsky. His step was dictated by fears for his life associated with the conflict between the prince and Ivan the Terrible over the choice of the main paths of Russia's political development. Kurbsky's political concept consisted in the development of the principles of combining the power of the monarch, the institutions of the order apparatus and the further development of estate-representative bodies, both in the center and in the localities. The point of view defended by Ivan the Terrible was to assert the principle of unlimited monarchy, "autocracy", with the parallel establishment of a tough, forceful regime. The subsequent development of events showed that the point of view of Ivan IV prevailed.

In the "Peter's" era, religious motives were added to the political motives for leaving the country. The process of economic migration, so characteristic of the countries of Central and Western Europe, practically did not affect Russia until the second half of the 19th century, although there are references to Russian settlers in the 16th - 18th centuries. to America, China and Africa. However, these migrations were insignificant in number and associated with the "call of the distant seas" or the search for happiness. At the end of the 18th century. Russian settlers also appeared in European countries: in France (1774), Germany (in the cities of Halle, Marburg, Jena, etc.) where from the middle of the 18th century. Russian noble youth began to study.

The main center of Russian political emigration in the second quarter of the 19th century. was Paris, and after the revolution of 1848 London became it, where the "first free Russian printing house" founded by A.I. Herzen, thanks to whom Russian emigration became a significant factor in political life Russia. A characteristic feature of the "noble emigration" from Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century, which left quite legally, was a relatively high standard of living.

In the second half of the 19th century, after the Polish uprising of 1863-1864. a number of political "criminals" fled from Russia, who settled mainly in London, Bern, Heidelberg, Tulz, Geneva, Berlin. This new emigration expanded the social composition of the Russian political emigration. The bourgeoisie, the commoners, the intelligentsia were added to the nobility.

A special stream of Russian political emigration that emerged after the assassination of Alexander II and the internal political crisis of the 80s of the 19th century, spanned almost a quarter of a century. The appearance in emigration of one of the first political organizations - the Marxist "Union of Russian Social Democrats Abroad", also dates back to this time.

Speaking about the Russians who were abroad in the last quarter of the XIX - early XX century. first of all, we should mention the economic "migrants". The reason for their departure was the higher wages abroad. Until the early 1980s, the number of those who left Russia for economic reasons did not exceed 10 thousand people, later it began to grow and in 1891 reached its "peak" - 109 thousand people. In 1894, it fell sharply, which was associated with a trade agreement between Russia and Germany, which facilitated the crossing of the border and allowed for a short time to travel abroad and return. Labor or economic emigration in the pre-revolutionary period was the most massive. It consisted mainly of landless peasants, artisans, and unskilled workers. In total for the period from 1861. By 1915, 4,200,500 people left Russia, of which 3,978,900 people emigrated to the countries of the New World, mainly to the USA, which is 94%. It should be noted that most of the emigrants from Russia were not ethnic Russians. More than 40% of the emigrants were Jews. According to the census of 1910, 1,732.5 thousand natives of Russia were registered in the United States, and persons of "Russian origin" - 2,781.2 thousand. Among the natives of Russia: 838 thousand Jews, 418 thousand Poles, 137 thousand Lithuanians, 121 thousand Germans and only 40.5 thousand Russians. Thus, it turns out that no more than 3% of all persons of Russian origin lived in the United States by 1910. Define precisely ethnic composition labor emigration of the late XIX - early XX centuries. does not seem possible. So, in the United States, Ukrainians, Carpathossians were registered as Russians or Rusyns, mainly immigrants from the western and southern provinces of the Russian Empire, from Austria-Hungary (Galicia, Bukovina), Transcarpathia. They identified themselves with the Russians and, in a broad sense, with the East Slavic culture. Their descendants have largely preserved this continuity to our time. Thus, most of the 10 million parishioners of the Russian Church in America (American Metropolitanate), numerous Ukrainian and Carpatho-Russian churches are descendants of labor emigrants. In the late XIX - early XX centuries. Russian peasants in America united mainly around church parishes and peasant brotherhoods, mutual aid societies. Among this category of emigrants there were few educated and literate people: they did not write books and memoirs, but through generations they carried love and respect for Russia, preserving the traditions of Orthodoxy, as evidenced by dozens of Russian Orthodox churches built by their hands.

It is impossible not to mention the mass emigration abroad of representatives of national minorities. tsarist Russia in the 19th century. First of all, Tatars, Germans, Poles and Jews. This emigration was largely due to religious reasons. But these flows of emigration are not the subject of this work. Since, with a big stretch, the emigration of the Mennonite Germans, Crimean Tatars, Poles, most of the Jews and others can be considered Russian or Russian emigration, although they emigrated from Russia. We do not consider such groups in our work, because they very quickly lost any connection with Russia and Russian culture. Although the scale of such emigration from pre-revolutionary Russia was significant, it was more correct to use the term “resettlement from Russia” for it. It would hardly be justified to consider the Tatar population of Turkey as the descendants of Russian emigrants, and they themselves identify themselves not even with the Tatars, but with the Turks. Also, how incorrect it would be to consider the American director S. Spilerberg and the magician D. Copperfield, as representatives of the Russian diaspora on the American continent, only on the grounds that their ancestors were from Odessa. It would be very problematic to discover any influence of Russian culture among the descendants of German settlers from Russia in the 19th century in Germany and the USA.

The originality and uncommonness of Jewish emigration from Russia is due to the fact that it includes all possible typologies of emigration: political, labor, religious, national, often intertwined and difficult to isolate. Another feature of a part of the Jewish emigration is that part of it has been retaining elements of Russian culture and the Russian language for over 150 years. This is evidenced by the large number of Russian-language newspapers, magazines and organizations created by her that use the Russian language as a means of communication. The beginning of the mass Jewish emigration dates back to the 70s of the 19th century. Moreover, more than 90% of Jewish emigrants were sent to the United States. In the 70s of all Russian emigrants who arrived in the United States, 42% were Jews, in the 80s they were already 58.2%. The absolute number of Jewish emigrants continues to increase throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. This was largely due to the restriction of the rights of Jews in the 80s. In particular, the introduction in 1882 of the "Provisional Rules" for the residence of Jews in the countryside. They forbade Jews to settle outside cities, acquire property, and lease land. In 1887, Jews were forbidden to settle in Rostov-on-Don and in the Taganrog district, in 1891 - in Moscow and the Moscow region. In 1886-1887, decrees were issued limiting the right of Jews to enter gymnasiums and real schools throughout Russia. In the United States, Jewish emigrants settled mainly in the states of the North Atlantic, primarily New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. In 1891-1900 234.2 thousand Russian Jews left the United States, which amounted to 36.5% of all Russian emigrants who arrived in the United States. Jewish emigration reached its peak at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1901-1910. 704.2 thousand Jews arrived in the United States, which amounted to 44.1% of all Russian immigrants. Jewish emigration cannot be classified as labor or temporary. There were practically no re-emigrants among the Jews, i.e. they deliberately tried to find a new home in the country of entry. This is partly due to the peculiarities of the Russian legislation of that period. In tsarist Russia, emigration was prohibited - only temporary travel abroad was allowed. The only exception to this rule were Jews, who, according to the "Rules" of May 8, 1892, received the right to officially leave the country, without the right to return.

A significant episode in the history of Russian political emigration was the activity of Herzen's friend, high-ranking oppositionist Prince P.V. Dolgorukov. Dolgorukov collaborated with Herzen's Kolokol, providing information compromising the ruling strata of Tsarist Russia from his illegally exported archive. Dolgorukov also published his periodicals "Future", "Leaf", "Truthful" and others. Here are just a few of the publications of Prince Dolgorukov: "The current state of affairs at court", "Emperor Alexander Nikolaevich. His character and lifestyle. His wife Maria Alexandrovna "," About what is happening in the Ministry of Finance "," Career of Mina Ivanovna ", etc.

The beginning of the second or "proletarian" stage of the formation of the Russian political emigration before 1917 is associated with the creation in 1883 in Geneva of the "Emancipation of Labor" group. Its origins were former leaders of the populist movement: G.V. Plekhanov, a member of the Land and Freedom organization and the leader of the Black Redistribution, P.B. Axelrod, Plekhanov's associate in the Black Redistribution chief Editor Bakunin newspaper "Community", landowner V, N. Ignatov and others. The group marked the beginning of the Marxist trend in the history of political emigration. Abroad, members of the Emancipation of Labor group published the Library of Contemporary Socialism and the Working Library. The activities of the Emancipation of Labor group prepared both the formation in 1898 and the final registration in 1903 of the RSDLP, and members of the Emancipation of Labor group Plekhanov, Axelrod, Zasulich played an important role in the formation of the RSDLP. The RSDLP has created the largest, in comparison with other émigré parties and associations, infrastructure of party organizations and groups abroad. In particular, foreign groups of the RSDLP worked in Geneva, Bern, Paris, Berlin, Munich, Karlsruhe, Freiburg, Boston, Budapest, Lvov, Leipzig, Mannheim, Brussels, Nice, San Remo, Hamburg, Lausanne, Bremen, Lieger, Anthony Hanpan , Davos, Copenga gene, Toulouse, Chicago, New York and many other cities in Europe and America. The most famous printed organs of the RSDLP are the newspapers Iskra, Zarya, Vperyod, Proletary, Pravda, Sotsial-Demokrat, etc. In 1908, the center of Russian political emigration moved from Geneva to Paris.

As already mentioned above, emigration, especially emigration of the 19th and early 20th centuries, is a complex phenomenon, diverse, which does not fit into the Procrustean bed of any classification and systematization. The division of emigrants into political, economic, who left their homeland due to religious oppression, and so on, by no means covers all the components of emigration. The motives and reasons that prompted a person to become an emigrant are often very individual. And each person has their own story. The only thing that unites this community, a group of people called emigrants, is that they all left their homeland for a long time, and sometimes for a lifetime.

In the period of the second half of the XIX, beginning of the XX century, many figures lived abroad russian science, culture and just rich nobles. N.V. Gogol and I.S. Turgenev lived abroad for a long time. K.P.Bryullov, I.I. Mechnikov and many others. The reasons for their emigration are very different. Often this is a search for more favorable conditions for creativity and scientific work, personal reasons. These varied motives were often intertwined.

From 1847 until his death in 1883, I.S. Turgenev lived abroad mainly in France. In 1877 the historian, geographer, member of the Russian Geographical Society, correspondent of the Kolokol magazine, MI Venyukov emigrated to France. In the early 30s of the XIX century, the mother and daughter of Vereshchagin, Elizaveta Arkadyevna and Alexandra Mikhailovna, went abroad for permanent residence. A. M. Vereshchagin, Lermontov's cousin, was friends with him during her life in Moscow and was in correspondence. In 1837, A.M. Vereshchagina married Baron Karl von Hugel and has not returned to Russia since then, living mainly in Paris and Stuttgart.

Russian microbiologist, Nobel laureate, I. I. Mechnikov lived in France from 1888 until his death in 1916. Mechnikov in 1888 accepted the offer of Louis Pasteur and headed the largest laboratory of the bacteriological institute in Paris, since 1903 he was simultaneously the deputy director of this institution.

Numerous Russian libraries in many European cities were also centers of the Russian pre-revolutionary emigration. One of the first Russian émigré libraries was the "Slavic Library in Paris", founded in 1855 by Russian Jesuits at the initiative of Prince I.S. Gagarin. A significant cultural center of the Russian colony in Paris was the "Russian Library named after I. S. Turgenev ". It opened in January 1875. Its founders were I.S. Turgenev and G.A. Lopatin. In 1883, after Turgenev's death, the library was named after him. In 1902, the “Russian Library named after V.I. N.V. Gogol ". The first admissions to the library were from the “Club of Russian Artists in Rome” that had ceased to exist. Thus, the library received several thousand volumes. Readings, concerts, debates were often held in the library. P.D.Boborykin, S.M. Volkonsky, V.F.Ern, S.M.Soloviev and others acted as lecturers. On Wednesdays, weekly meetings were organized for Russian emigrants in Rome. Library named after Gogol was a non-partisan institution and sought to be equally accessible to all Russian emigrants, regardless of their political views. The membership fee for library members was 15 francs. Since 1912 in Rome there was also the "Society of the Leo Tolstoy Russian Library and Reading Room". Any Russian emigrant who lived in Rome for at least three months could be a member of the Society.

The Slavika Library at the Alexander University in Helsinki possessed the largest collection of Russian books outside of Russia. From 1828 to 1917 she regularly received, by decree of Nicholas I, obligatory copies of all books published in the Russian Empire. In addition, it was replenished not only by legal deposit, but also by donations and personalized gifts. The most valuable of them was the "Alexander's Gift", which came from the son of the Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, Pavel Konstantinovich Alexandrov. He donated 24,000 volumes to the Slavik Library from two libraries - the Great Gatchina and the Marble Palace library, consisting mainly of old books of the XYII and XYIII centuries. By 1917, there were about 350,000 book titles in the library.

One cannot fail to mention one more large group of Russian people who became involuntary emigrants. These are Russian people living in Alaska who became emigrants by captivity - after the sale of Alaska to America in 1867. The parishes of the Russian Orthodox Church also involuntarily found themselves in emigration.

The Russian Orthodox Church in America dates back to the first Orthodox mission in Alaska in 1794. Since the sale of Alaska to America in 1867, the Russian Church in America has been on the territory of another state - the United States. Since that time, its parishioners have been replenished mainly at the expense of converted Americans. In fact, since 1867, the ROC in America becomes a Local Orthodox Church, i.e. having found "its place", it is in canonical dependence on the ROC. Gradually, churches of the Russian Orthodox Church appear in the original territory of the United States, San Francisco 1867, New York 1870, and their parishioners already include all the Orthodox living in the United States: Serbs, Greeks, Syrians, immigrants from Austria-Hungary, etc. etc. In 1903, the Russian Church in America had 52 churches and 69 chapels. The number of registered parishioners reached 32,000, and there were only 876 immigrants from Russia. In order not to embarrass parishioners who did not have Russian citizenship, the Holy Synod, by a decree of January 27, 1906, allowed the practice of commemorating not Emperor Nicholas II, but the President of the United States at services. By 1917, there were about 100,000 registered parishioners and 306 churches and chapels in the American Church. In addition, the Syro-Arab Mission, Serbian and Albanian Missions belonged to the Russian Church.

Summing up the analysis of Russian emigration in pre-revolutionary Russia, the following conclusions can be drawn. Emigration, as a phenomenon, a subject of study by historians, demographers and other specialists, appears in Russia only since the middle of the 19th century. It is from the middle of the 19th century that one can talk about such concepts as the Russian émigré press, the literature of the Russian diaspora. During the second half of the last century at the beginning of the present, a fairly large Russian diaspora was formed in Europe and America, with its own infrastructure of emigre institutions, editorial offices of newspapers and magazines, archives and libraries. It should be noted that the pre-revolutionary emigration of the 19th and early 20th centuries was the most significant in terms of its size, compared with subsequent emigration, the number of people who left Russia during this period exceeded 7 million. This is largely due to the fact that the pre-revolutionary emigration was longer in time and was not caused by any political cataclysms, in contrast to subsequent emigration. At the same time, emigration in tsarist Russia was not regulated by law. The transfer of Russian citizens to another citizenship was prohibited, and the period of stay abroad was limited to 5 years, after which it was necessary to apply for an extension of the period, otherwise the person was considered to have lost citizenship, and his property passed to the trusteeship, and he himself, upon returning to Russia, was subject to eternal link. Thus, until 1917, emigration from Russia was semi-legal and in fact was not officially regulated in any way ...

The February Revolution of 1917 put an end to the "anti-Tsarist" political emigration. In March 1917, the majority of revolutionaries of various political shades returned to Russia. To facilitate their repatriation, even Committees for Homecoming were created. They operated in France, Switzerland, England, USA. But already in November 1917 the opposite phenomenon began to develop - emigration, carrying an anti-Soviet, anti-Bolshevik and anti-communist character. She received the name "White emigration" or "First wave of Russian emigration". It should be discussed in more detail, since it was the "First Emigration" that played a significant role in the development and preservation of the Russian national culture her spiritual roots.

Emigration is always a difficult life step associated with very serious changes in life. Even moving to a neighboring country with a similar mentality and language, the migrants inevitably face a number of difficulties. Of course, this is not in vain. In most cases, emigration provides an opportunity to seriously improve the quality of one's life, achieve the desired goals, fulfill dreams, and sometimes just escape from some imminent danger in their homeland. Or simply provide yourself and your children with a more peaceful and richer future.

Pros of emigration: why go abroad

The assessment of a new life always follows from the values \u200b\u200bof a particular person. Consider those vital parameters that moving can improve.

First, it is climate and ecology. If you were unlucky enough to be born in the Far North, in Siberia, or in a very rainy region, it is only natural that one day you might want to move to a warm country, perhaps to the sea or to the ocean. It is no coincidence that many residents of the northern regions of Russia, retiring on an early retirement, buy a house in Krasnodar Territory, Crimea, Bulgaria, Montenegro or Turkey. One cannot but mention the environmental issues. It is difficult to hope for good health if you live in an industrial city with a huge amount of gas emissions into the atmosphere and liquid waste in rivers. Many residents of Norilsk, Nizhny Tagil or Karabash will explain better than many how often they get sick or experience allergies. And the life expectancy in these places speaks for itself. As well as a high proportion of cancer, pneumonia and asthma.

Secondly, it is an opportunity to dramatically improve your standard of living. If in Russia, doctors and nurses earn very modest money, then in many countries, such as the USA, Canada, Germany, Israel, this is one of the highest paid professions. You can do what you love, and at the same time be able to buy a very nice house, a couple of premium cars, pay for education for your children and fly on vacation to any place on Earth. Now compare this picture with any doctor in a Russian district clinic.

But even if you take professions that do not require a long professional education, it is safe to say that any electrician or plumber can easily feed his family with children in the United States. Without qualifications, you can always go to truckers, and just as well be able to buy yourself a house, a personal car, and other benefits.

Third, security. Whatever one may say, but most regions of Russia, by world standards, are a very dangerous place in terms of crime and the risks of being beaten or killed, simply because someone did not like your face, or did not have enough to buy a drink. Just think about it. The level of crime in Canada, for example, is at least 10 times less than in Russia. Moreover, if something happens there, then most often it is theft or theft of cars, which does not threaten your health in any way. Moreover, all large things and property there are insured. There are regions in Canada where not a single person is killed in a year. And the most serious crimes there are committed on or near Indian reservations, and they almost never offend ordinary Canadians.

Fourth, education and prospects for your children. Your children will be able to grow up in a calm and prosperous environment and receive up-to-date knowledge in any profession they choose. By the way, it is the children of immigrants who are considered the most successful people among all categories of the population in developed countries. They have the drive and desire to take a high place in society, which almost invariably leads them to success, and sometimes to great wealth.

Fifth, you can be sure that your property will always be your property, and it will not be taken away from you by the next reforms or redistribution of property. In Russia and on the territory of the former USSR several times, during the 20th century, money, savings and family capital simply burned out. You can live in abundance and, at the end of your life, pass on your savings to your children, who do not have to start from scratch.

Sixth, you will have more opportunities for relaxation and travel. If you settle in one of the European countries, you can travel around most of the European countries by car. If you settle in the USA or Canada, you will have access to all the resorts of the Caribbean, which, in comparison with your new salary, will cost ridiculous money. The Dominican Republic is the analogue of Turkey in the New World. Cheap, great hotels, beaches and entertainment.

Cons of emigration: what you need to remember

Let's be honest and talk about the cons and hardships that most immigrants go through.

First, it will take you several years to fully integrate into society. The first months are almost always euphoria: a dream has come true, a new place of residence seems to be an exceptionally beautiful place, people, on average, are kinder and more welcoming. But, starting from 3-6 months, almost everyone begins a depressive stage associated with personality restructuring and adaptation to new cultural norms, habits, and ways of communication. People and events around you start to get annoying. Cons and shortcomings are striking. Longing for the Motherland, friends and acquaintances begins. Sometimes it's hard to get through, but it goes away. After that, a new, calm and joyful life begins.

Secondly, it is a lowering of social status and the need to start from scratch. With the exception of people who relocate within large international companies, as well as employees in the IT sector, many have to start with simple jobs. Work in a fast food cafe, at a construction site, as drivers and couriers, or at starting office positions, such as receiving calls or meeting guests. Some people find it very difficult to endure this stage. They start to think: I was a big boss or a doctor of sciences. Why am I not appreciated here?

But let's not forget that here you are just one of many foreigners who need to prove their ability to solve problems, get along in a team. After the first odd jobs, 90% of people are already settling in, receiving letters of recommendation and starting to pursue a full-fledged career. On average, your gap will be 3-4 years. After this period, almost everyone makes up for their previous position in society.

Third, the need to put in a lot of effort. There is a lot to learn foreign language, local traditions, ways of communication, traffic laws and regulations, ways of seeking medical attention and many other things. In another country, everything may be arranged quite differently from your homeland. Some people find it hard to keep smiling and having to keep up fleeting conversations - small talk.

Fourth is the need to make new acquaintances and friends. Yes, your friends and family probably won't come with you. Many social connections will completely die out over time, you will lose common interests and subjects for conversation. Someone manage to find a social circle in immigrant circles and local diasporas. Someone finds friends in sports and dance sections, clubs of interest or just among neighbors. Man is a social animal, and even the most unsociable introvert will need at least 2-3 friends.

Instead of unambiguous conclusions

The main thing in the immigration process is honesty with yourself, an honest evaluation pros and cons, your needs and what you are willing to pay for the opportunity to start a new life. Millions of people have overcome all difficulties before you. And millions of people will do it after you. Weigh the pros and cons carefully and act decisively. Everything will work out. In addition, there may be several attempts to move. One failure is never the end, and never the final judgment.