Biography of Empress Anna Ioannovna. The Russian Empire in the reign of Anna Ioannovna and John VI. During the reign of Anna Ioannovna, the

The Great Peter was replaced by rather faceless heirs, and the fate of Peter's reforms turned out to be dramatic. The period (era) of palace coups in Russian history is usually called 1725–1761, when in the Russian Empire supreme power changed hands mainly through coups carried out by noble groups with the support and assistance of the guard.

During this time, six monarchs replaced the Russian throne: Catherine I (1725–1727), Peter II (1727–1730), Anna Ioannovna (1730–1740), John VI Antonovich (1740–1741), Elizaveta Petrovna (1741–1761 ) and Peter III (1761–1762).

The causes and essence of “palace” coups. The death of Peter I caused a legal crisis in the state. The issue of succession to the throne was never regulated by the emperor. Among the reasons that caused a series of palace coups in the Russian Empire is the presence of a fairly large number of direct and indirect heirs of the Romanov dynasty claiming the throne. Finally, not the least role in destabilizing the political situation in Russia after the death of Peter I was played by the corporate interests of the nobility and high-born nobility. The main and only task of all court groups was to keep power in their hands.

The main driving force behind the palace coups was the noble guard, who realized their military force and political significance.

In essence, palace coups were not state coups, because did not pursue the goal of radical changes in political power and government system. The exception, according to historians, was the events of 1730 associated with the accession of Anna Ioannovna.

In domestic historiography, the features of palace coups were highlighted. Various palace groups, striving to elevate their protege to the throne, acted as their initiators. The most important consequence of the coups was the strengthening of the economic and political positions of the nobility. The change of rulers on the Russian throne did not mean serious political upheavals, but had a certain impact on the development of the state and society. The main conspiracies alternated with the so-called “small coups”, as a result of which high government officials fell into disgrace. An important phenomenon of this period was the flourishing of favoritism.

Domestic and foreign policy. Lawlessness around the Russian throne began immediately after the death of Peter I. Two candidates were considered: Peter, the son of Tsarevich Alexei, who was supported by the old aristocracy (Dolgoruky, Golitsyn, Saltykov, Lopukhin, etc.) and the widow of the emperor Catherine, whom she wanted to see in the role of empress “ new nobility” (A. Menshikov, P. Tolstoy, I. Buturlin, etc.), who understood that Peter II would not forgive them for the death of his father.

Catherine I (1725–1727). With the help of the Guard A.D. Menshikov, the former favorite of Peter I, and his supporters managed to bring Catherine I to power. She turned out to be completely unprepared for government activities. A. Menshikov himself became the de facto ruler.

In 1726, the Supreme Privy Council was established under the empress. This body represented a kind of compromise between representatives of the Russian aristocracy who aspired to rule. The Senate was deprived of its functions and subordinated to the “supremes”.

The Supreme Privy Council received the status higher institution in a state that had broad powers. His functions included: appointment of senior officials; resolving financial issues; supervision of the army and navy; control over political intelligence agencies; relations with foreign states.

The decree of August 4, 1726 divided the right to sign all laws of the Russian Empire between the empress and members of the Supreme Privy Council. Catherine I could not and did not want to personally govern the state. The short reign of Catherine I was marked by the beginning of a retreat from the general line of reforms of Peter I.

The Chief Magistrate was eliminated. The activities of local magistrates were subordinated to governors and voivodes. A regional reform was carried out, restoring the division of the country into counties (instead of Peter's provinces). State salaries to officials were replaced by accidents - payments from petitioners for consideration of their cases. Their introduction contributed to the rise of bribery and extortion.

During the reign of Catherine I, an attempt was made to stabilize the economic situation by slightly reducing the size of the poll tax. It was decided to collect arrears from previous years from the landowners. The collection of the poll tax was entrusted to the governor (which Peter I at one time refused).

During the reign of Ekaterina Alekseevna, Russia did not wage wars. Among the events in the field of foreign policy that contributed to the strengthening of Russia’s international positions, one can highlight: the signing of a union treaty with Austria and Prussia; an attempt to establish diplomatic and economic cooperation with China.

In May 1727, Catherine I died at the age of 43 from consumption.

Peter II (1727–1730). The successor of Catherine I (at the insistence of A. Menshikov) was the 12-year-old grandson of Peter the Great - Peter II. His Serene Highness Prince Menshikov was appointed regent under the newly-crowned emperor.

However, representatives of the old aristocracy prepared a conspiracy against A. Menshikov. As a result, by the autumn of 1727, Peter II emerged from Menshikov’s control and declared himself a full-fledged ruler. The fall of Menshikov actually meant a palace coup. Power ended up in the hands of the old Moscow aristocracy (princes Dolgoruky, A.I. Osterman), who tried to forget the political and economic legacy of Peter the Great and distract the boy tsar from state affairs.

Funding for the fleet practically ceased, the country's armed forces fell into decay, the capital of the state was moved to Moscow (1728), and the rights of the nobility related to trade and manufacturing were expanded. In the conditions of a tough struggle for power and the influence of representatives of the old aristocracy on the emperor, Peter’s legacy was practically forgotten.

During the short reign of the teenage emperor, there were no significant changes in the state and social life of the Russian Empire. On January 19, 1730, Peter II died. With his death, the male line of the Romanov dynasty was interrupted. The question of succession to the throne arose again, since the emperor did not appoint a successor for himself.

Anna Ioannovna (1730–1740). The Russian aristocracy, led by Prince D.M., took advantage of the current situation. Golitsyn, who had a strong position in the Supreme Privy Council. It was decided to invite the niece of Peter I, the Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, to the Russian throne.

Her accession was stipulated by a number of “conditions” - conditions for accession to the throne, which greatly limited her power, which she was obliged to share with the Supreme Privy Council. According to the “conditions”, Anna Ioannovna was not allowed to get married, appoint a successor, declare war and make peace, introduce new taxes, grant and take away estates without trial, or grant ranks higher than colonel. Violation of these conditions by the empress entailed the deprivation of her crown.

However, the plans of the supreme leaders caused discontent among the local nobility, who wanted to equalize their rights with the old nobility. On February 25, 1730, supporters of Anna Ioannovna’s accession – senators, generals and nobles, numbering 800 people. filed a petition demanding to review the “Conditions” of the Supreme Privy Council. Another 160 nobles demanded not to sign the document, which she did with relief. The limitation of autocratic power planned by the tribal aristocracy did not happen.

Historians called the period of Anna Ioannovna’s reign “Bironovschina” - after her favorite Ernst Biron. The all-powerful favorite was in charge of the appointment and removal of officials, and the expenditure of public funds was under his control. The granting of various privileges depended on Biron's power. With the permission of the Empress, Biron introduced a huge number of foreigners into the highest circles of government of the country, displacing the Russian aristocracy.

However, along with numerous foreigners, important government positions were also occupied by representatives of the Russian nobility - G.I. Golovkin, A.M. Cherkassky, A.P. Volynsky and others. It was under Anna Ioannovna that the size of the salary received by Russian and foreign officers was equalized (under Peter I, foreign officers received 2 times more than Russians). Also in 1728–1738. the number of foreign generals in Russian army from 58% to 51%.

Thus, modern historians insist that the image of the “sinister Bironovism” does not correspond to reality, but they do not deny that, in general, the era of Anna Ioannovna has earned a bad reputation.

The beginning of her reign was marked by political repression. Political terror fell on almost the entire Russian nobility and other segments of the population. In March 1731, an organ of political investigation and repression was created - the Secret Chancellery. The main task of this censorship body was to control public opinion and the attitude of different sections of society towards the authorities. Main feature The repressive activities of Anna Ioannovna’s punitive authorities began to pay special attention to the nobility.

Characteristic feature Anna Ioannovna's internal policy was a further retreat from the political and economic heritage of Peter I. The role of the Senate fell sharply. Instead of the Supreme Privy Council, the Cabinet of Ministers was established (1731) headed by A. Osterman. In 1731, the Berg College was liquidated, which harmed the development of mining factories. In 1735, a decree was issued according to which the signatures of three cabinet ministers were equal to the signature of the empress.

Anna Ioannovna's government showed special concern for the noble class. Peter's decree on single inheritance was repealed (1731), which gave landowners the right to divide their estates. In 1731, the Corps of Gentry was created, which led to the release of the nobility from the obligation to begin military service as soldiers. In 1736, by special decree military service noblemen was limited to a 25-year term, and one of the sons of a noble family was generally exempt from military service.

In parallel with the growth of the privileges of the nobility, there was a process of further enslavement of the peasants. They were forbidden to open factories and engage in trade (1731-1732). Landowners were given the right to determine the punishment for serfs for escaping (1736). The number of peasants' duties in favor of the landowners increased sharply.

The imperial court moved to St. Petersburg in 1732. Foreigners were delighted by the pomp and splendor of the imperial court. Thanks to Anna Ioannovna, Italian opera and billiards became famous in Russia. The 2nd Bering expedition to the shores of Alaska was organized, M.V. became famous. Lomonosov.

Russian foreign policy during the reign of Anna Ioannovna generally continued the work of Peter the Great. Russian empire participated in two wars. Together with Austria in the War of the “Polish Succession” (1733–1735) on the side of Augustus III, as well as in the war with Turkey (1735–1739) for access to the Black Sea and to suppress the raids of the Crimean Tatars. The war did not solve the objectives, and ended with the signing of the Belgrade Peace Treaty: access to the Black Sea was not achieved. The positive results of the foreign policy activities of Anna Ioannovna’s government should be recognized as the continuation of Peter I’s course in strengthening the southern borders of the empire.

It is especially worth noting the successes of Russia during the reign of Anna Ioannovna in the field of foreign trade. In this regard, of great interest to the Russian Empire were: in the west - England (Russian-English treatise on trade of 1734), and in the east - China. Anna Ioannovna died on October 17, 1740 at the age of 47.

Ivan VI Antonovich (October 1740 – November 1741). After the death of Anna Ioannovna, the 2-month-old son of the niece of Empress Anna Leopoldovna, 2-month-old Ivan VI Antonovich of Brunswick, was elevated to the Russian throne, bypassing the daughter of Peter I, Princess Elizabeth. Biron was appointed regent for the infant child. However, in November 1740, Field Marshal Minich with 80 grenadiers arrested Biron. The mother of Ivan VI, Anna Leopoldovna (1740-November 1741), was confirmed as regent.

The beginning of Anna Leopoldovna's reign is associated with active government activities. Anna Leopoldovna's first events had a pro-noble orientation. All noble families who suffered during Biron's repressions (Volynsky, Golitsyn, Dolgoruky and many others) were granted an amnesty. The Secret Chancellery was subordinated to the power of the regent. The main decrees of the previous regime related to the privileges of the nobility were confirmed (including the 1736 decree on the 25-year service of nobles). The war with Sweden began victoriously (summer 1741).

However, Anna Leopoldovna’s activities were characterized by inconsistency, which was especially evident in personnel policy. Important government positions continued to be awarded to foreigners.

In November 1741, Russian society was alarmed by Anna Leopoldovna's attempt to accept new law about succession to the throne, which would give her the rights of an autocratic empress. The law was not adopted, but the authority of the Brunswick family fell sharply. Once again, Russian society experienced a surge of patriotism, wanting to get rid of German dominance and continue the reforms of Great Peter. Not only the nobles, but also all classes of the Russian Empire saw Elizaveta Petrovna as his successor. Under these conditions, a new palace coup was being prepared.

Elizaveta Petrovna (1741–1761). On November 25, 1741, with the help of the guards of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, as well as his supporters (I. Lestok, favorite A. Razumovsky and the Shuvalov brothers), the daughter of Peter the Great, Elizabeth, ascended the throne. As a result of a palace coup, the infant Emperor Ivan VI Antonovich was overthrown. All Brunswick family was arrested and imprisoned in Kholmogory. The leading ministers of the previous reign were also exiled to Siberia.

The main goal of her reign, Elizabeth proclaimed a return to the policies of Peter I. Unlike Anna Ioannovna, the new empress tried to accept Active participation in government affairs. Elizabeth Petrovna's domestic policy is characterized by the following important events. The cabinet of ministers was abolished (but the rights of the Senate were not restored). The personal office of Her Imperial Majesty was created (since 1756 - a Conference, the staff of which included 10 of her closest assistants). Some state institutions- The chief and city magistrates, some collegiums (berg and manufactory collegiums) were restored. Many foreigners were removed from government and education and replaced by Russians. Recruitment duty was eased (Russia was divided into 5 districts, each of which in turn supplied a recruit with 100 revision souls). The peasants were forgiven arrears for 17 years (1741), but at the same time indirect taxes were increased.

The socio-political and legal status nobility, the result of which was the transformation of the nobles into a privileged closed class. The situation of the peasantry worsened (in fact, human trafficking was legalized); it was allowed to exile unwanted peasants to Siberia without trial or court order (1760).

In 1754–1755 Internal customs duties were eliminated, which contributed to the development of the all-Russian market. In the area of ​​trade, the policy of protectionism was continued. In fact, the death penalty was abolished, although its legal abolition did not occur, but during the reign of Elizabeth not a single death sentence was signed.

In the field of education and culture: Moscow University (1755) and the Academy of Arts (1757) were opened; the Russian professional theater was established (1756). Architectural activity was characterized by the flourishing of the Baroque and Rococo styles.

Elizaveta Petrovna's foreign policy continued Peter's traditions. The main foreign policy tasks of this period include maintaining and strengthening Russia’s position in the Baltic lands, as well as the fight against aggressive Prussia, which was striving for hegemony in Central and Eastern Europe. Elizaveta Petrovna died on December 25, 1762.

Peter III (December 1761 – June 1762). After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna, her nephew, a supporter of Prussia, Peter III, came to the Russian throne.

His reign began with the destruction of the results of the brilliant victories of the Russian army. The war with Prussia was ended. Russia returned all conquered territories to Prussia and became Prussia's ally in the war with Austria.

The activities of Peter III offended the national feelings of the Russian people, who perceived the new emperor as a temporary misunderstanding in the history of Russia. The palace coup of 1762 thwarted the plans of Peter III - Russia withdrew from the war and annulled the treaty with Prussia.

In historiography, his personality evokes diametrically opposed assessments: from traditionally negative (a fan of everything Prussian) to very positive (much of what was brought to life under Catherine II began under Peter III). It is worth noting that the name of Peter III is associated with a series of important measures in the field of domestic policy.

The Manifesto of noble freedom was signed on February 18, 1762 (nobles received the right to leave military or civil service and retire whenever they wish; corporal punishment was abolished; the right to freely travel abroad was granted). The secret chancellery was liquidated (February 21, 1762), which did not mean the end of repressive policies, but the harmful role of secret denunciations was recognized. An unsuccessful attempt was made to withdraw the guard from St. Petersburg and deprive it of the opportunity to influence the political life of the country.

The secularization of church lands was announced and the management of them was transferred from the jurisdiction of the Synod to the hands of the newly created College of Economy. An attempt was made to resolve the situation of the Old Believers, who were persecuted by the official church and state power(ban on persecution of Old Believers religious reasons, which can be regarded as a step towards instilling freedom of conscience in Russian society), etc.

An analysis of the activities of Peter III allows us to see in him a very far-sighted political figure. Although to a greater extent he recognized himself as a Holstein Duke, and not a Russian Emperor.

Unpopular measures of internal and foreign policy Peter III led to the fact that the emperor became a victim of the 6th coup (June 28, 1762), which was led by his wife Catherine II. Peter III was soon killed.

Letter from A.G. Orlova to Catherine II about the murder of Peter III:

“Mother, merciful lady! How can I explain, describe what happened: you won’t believe your faithful servant; but as before God I will tell the truth. Mother! Ready to go to death; but I don’t know how this disaster happened. We perished when you did not have mercy. Mother - he is not in the world. But no one thought of this, and how can we think of raising our hands against the Emperor! But, Empress, disaster has happened. He got into an argument at the table with Prince Fyodor, and before we had time to separate him, he was already gone. We ourselves don’t remember what we did; but every single one of them is guilty, worthy of execution. Have mercy on me, at least for my brother. I brought you a confession, and there is nothing to look for. Forgive me or tell me to finish soon. The light is not nice; angered you and destroyed your souls forever.”

Thus, the main consequences of the dramatic era of “palace coups” were: strengthening the position of the nobility; internal political instability: departure from Peter's reforms.

Questions and tasks

1. Name the main features of palace coups.

2. What reasons can be identified that contributed to the creation of an unstable political situation in the country during this period?

3. What role did the guard play in the events of palace coups?

4. Describe the main directions of domestic policy in 1725–1762.

5. What was the departure from Peter’s reforms in the policy of his successors?

The Germans poured into Russia like rubbish from a leaky bag - they surrounded the courtyard, inhabited the throne, and climbed into all the lucrative positions in government.

IN. Klyuchevsky,
(Russian historian)

The eleven-year reign of Anna Ioannovna and Ivan Antonovich (1730-1741) is often and undeservedly demonized in historical literature, pointing out the dominance of foreigners in the country as the main negative factor, although all this only became a logical consequence of the largely non-national empire of Peter the Great, in which the Russian nobles and officials themselves had to abandon many Russian traditions, choosing total Europeanization.

Harsh time of Anna Ioannovna.

On the day of the death of Tsar Peter II, the Supreme Privy Council met, which was then dominated by the Dolgoruky and Golitsyn families (5 seats out of 8). On it, the Dolgorukys tried to use a forged will of Peter II (Prince Ivan Dolgoruky signed on behalf of the Tsar) in favor of his bride Catherine Dolgoruky, but this fake was immediately exposed. Without thinking twice, the Supreme Privy Council, at the suggestion of D. Golitsyn, chose the niece of Peter I, the daughter of his elder brother Ivan - the Dowager Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740).

But the throne was offered to Anna by the “sovereigns” certain conditions- “conditions”, according to which the empress actually became a powerless puppet in the hands of members of the Supreme Privy Council. Without him, the empress did not have the right to appoint an heir, start a war and make peace, introduce new taxes, grant noble ranks above colonel rank, distribute and take away estates and estates, etc. Then the conditions were supplemented with two more points: the subordination of the guard to the Council and the obligation of the empress: “...If I do not fulfill this promise, I will be deprived of the Russian crown.”

Much has been written in the historical literature about the fact that the 1730 standards for limiting autocracy could have directed Russia towards a constitutional monarchy. However, it should be remembered that all initiatives for such restrictions came from the feudal elite, seeking to “add more freedom to themselves” (in the words of the main ideologist of the standards, Dmitry Golitsyn), and therefore, by definition, could not be progressive.

Anna Ioannovna easily signed these conditions, dreaming of obtaining the crown of a huge empire at any cost, but, having arrived in Russia, she received a “petition” from the nobles and guards, in which they expressed dissatisfaction with the conditions. Ordinary nobles immediately opposed the restriction of autocracy in favor of the aristocratic Privy Council, believing that under such an oligarchic system the interests of the nobility would not be respected. Therefore, they unanimously spoke out for unlimited autocracy.

Having received powerful support from the nobles and the guard, Anna broke the rules and abolished the Supreme Privy Council and began to rule as autocratically as everyone before her, but significantly more harshly. All the “supreme leaders” who tried to limit Anna’s power were executed and severely punished.

Another feature of her reign was that both in the empress’s circle and in government circles, unlike previous Russian rulers, there were more foreigners, especially Baltic Germans, which too offended the national feelings of Russian aristocrats. It is no coincidence that in the 19th century, in Russian noble historiography, her reign began to be painted in black terms as the dominance of the Germans - “Bironovism.”

Famous Russian historians (of the pre-revolutionary era) painted a rather unsightly political portrait of the new empress. N.I. Kostomarov: “Lazy, sloppy, with a clumsy mind and at the same time arrogant, arrogant, spiteful, not forgiving others for the slightest step that for some reason was disgusting to her.” V.O. gave an equally poisonous characterization. Klyuchevsky: “Tall and corpulent, with a face more masculine than feminine, callous by nature and even more callous during early widowhood amid diplomatic machinations and court adventures in Courland, where she was pushed around like a Russian-Prussian-Polish toy, she, having already 37 years old, brought to Moscow an angry and poorly educated mind with a fierce thirst for belated pleasures and rough entertainment.”

The Spanish diplomat and her contemporary Duke de Liria is more delicate in his assessment of the Russian Empress: “In her manner she is pleasant, affectionate and extremely attentive. Generous to the point of extravagance, she loves pomp excessively, which is why her courtyard surpasses all other European ones in splendor. She strictly demands obedience to herself and wants to know everything that is happening in her state, does not forget the services rendered to her, but at the same time she remembers well the insults inflicted on her.”

Among the most famous entertainments in which Empress Anna loved to participate were: bird shooting (directly from the windows of the palace), all kinds of palace amusements, crazy antics of jesters (including princes) and firecrackers, card games, billiards, horse riding...

Social life and all kinds of entertainment reached their maximum under Anna. The ball and masquerade could sometimes last up to 10 days. Huge sums of money were spent from the treasury to maintain the royal court, with various festive events, including the weddings of jesters, numerous kennels, etc. The Spanish envoy de Liria noted that the St. Petersburg court was “richer than even in Paris.” The English diplomat Claudius Rondo wrote to his superiors: “Your Excellency, you cannot imagine to what splendor the Russian court has reached during this reign, despite the fact that there is not a penny in the treasury, and therefore no one is paid.”

Everything was explained by the estimate of some expenses under Anna Ioannovna. Thus, the maintenance of the royal court cost 260,000 rubles annually; for the maintenance of a stable for Biron - 100,000 rubles; for minor needs of the Empress - 42,622 rubles; for two Academies (Sciences and Admiralty) - 47,371 rubles; for public education - 4500 rub. (according to Zaichkin A.I., Pochkaev I.N. Russian history). It cannot be said that the Empress did not pay attention to state affairs at all, however, every year, as she grew older, it became more and more painful for her to delve into government problems. She was increasingly absorbed in the everyday trifles of court life, entrusting all the threads of control to the Cabinet of Ministers and her favorite Biron.

The political investigation body, the Office of Secret Investigation Cases, which was then headed by A.I., gained dismal fame during Anna’s reign. Ushakov. It was this office, which kept track of everyone who was disloyal to the empress and her favorite Biron, and became an ominous symbol of the era of Anna Ioannovna. After all, any careless word addressed to the empress herself and Biron was followed by dungeon, hard labor, and painful execution. Denunciation in the form of the exclamation “word and deed” then caused horror in many, because after a possible and often frivolous accusation of high treason, a terrible trial, accompanied by torture, confiscation of property and executions of the accused. According to some sources, during Anna’s entire reign, over 20 thousand people were exiled to Siberia alone, 37,000 people were tortured in dungeons, and about 5,000 were executed (according to M. Evgenieva).

The reprisals against high-born nobles: princes Dolgoruky and cabinet minister Volynsky had a particular resonance in noble society. The former favorite of Peter II, Ivan Dolgoruky, was wheeled, and Artemy Volynsky was sentenced to impalement in 1740 for speaking badly about the empress, but then his head was cut off, after having his tongue cut out. Other dignitaries, including representatives of the clergy, were also subjected to painful death.

The fact that a number of those executed (especially Volynsky) were open opponents of Biron himself and a number of high-ranking Germans in Anna’s government later gave rise to the “patriotic” concept of the struggle of the “Russian party” against a foreign party, which was stable in pre-revolutionary historiography. Today, historians, having many archival materials about that era, are not inclined to exaggerate the role of foreigners, especially Biron, in the theft of the treasury and other abuses, for the simple reason that among those committing such outrages there were many Russian nobles themselves. It is also known that the executed Artemy Volynsky was himself convicted of many thefts, bribes and other official abuses.

Anna Ioannovna ended her short Moscow period and again moved with her court to St. Petersburg (1732). Under her, some changes took place in the system of public administration. Instead of the liquidated Supreme Privy Council, the Cabinet of Ministers was created under her (1731), which concentrated all the functions internal management and placed above the Senate. The main political figures in it were A. Osterman, R. Levenwolde, G. Golovkin, but it was Andrei Osterman who excelled.

Anna Ioannovna also failed to become an autocratic ruler, increasingly entrusting the decision of many matters to the Cabinet of Ministers. Since 1735, the signature of the 3rd cabinet of ministers, by her own decree, was equal to the signature of the empress. According to the figurative expression of Field Marshal Count Ernst Minich, Andrei Osterman, Reinhold Levenwolde, Ernst Biron became the “triumvirs” of the beginning of the reign of Empress Anna (according to N.N. Petrukhintsev). However, Field Marshal Minich himself, who then headed the Military Collegium, also played a significant role. It should also be noted that all the important dignitaries of Anna, both Russians and foreigners, intensively intrigued against each other in the struggle for power, which negatively influenced state policy.

Biron is in many ways a symbolic figure of the entire reign of Anna Ioannovna. It is no coincidence that the entire reign of the empress will be associated with his (Biron’s) name, and in an ominous format - “Bironovism.” It is curious that Biron, being the permanent favorite of Empress Anna, did not hold major government positions. Biron had the court position of chief chamberlain, which did not allow him to formally make important government decisions.

But the fact is that Biron (since 1737 received the title of Duke of Courland) had a huge informal influence on Anna Ioannovna. The latter was literally enslaved by Biron’s personality and fulfilled all his demands and whims. We can say that he actually acted as a shadow co-ruler of the Russian Empress, who was also forced to share her power with the Cabinet of Ministers. All contemporaries endowed Biron with the most negative characteristics, emphasizing his greed, lust for power, vindictiveness and cruelty, especially towards Russian nobles.

“The Poltava winner was humiliated,” wrote the pre-revolutionary historian S. M. Solovyov, “he enslaved Biron, who said: “You, Russians.” However, even his opponents noted Biron’s intelligence, energy and will. However, Biron was unnecessarily demonized by all pre-revolutionary historiography. It is characteristic that Alexander Pushkin, devoid of subjective bias regarding Biron, said the following: “He (Biron) had the misfortune of being a German; All the horror of Anna’s reign, which was in the spirit of his time and in the morals of the people, was blamed on him.” Regarding the foreign, “German” factor in the development of Russian statehood at that time, it should be noted that here any absolutization of this factor, both “for” and “against”, will be incorrect. The foreign factor in the development of Russian statehood became an inevitable companion to both Peter’s reforms and the post-Petrine era, which became its logical continuation.

Foreigners turned out to be an important modernization resource for Russian absolutism, which sought to build an exemplary European monarchy. But the Europeanized Russian nobles, who were infinitely far from the needs of millions of their peasants, also dreamed of living in such a monarchy. But the dream of the Russian nobles consisted of only one thing: they wanted to take high places in the public administration, which were occupied by more dexterous and enterprising foreigners who enjoyed the patronage of the royal court.

Government policy during the reign of Anna Ioannovna.

Empress Anna remembered to whom she owed her autocratic power. Under her, the Russian nobility received unprecedented rights and privileges. In March 1731, the provisions of Peter the Great's Decree on Single Inheritance of 1714 were repealed, which prohibited the division of estates between several heirs, which limited the rights of the nobility to dispose of land property. In this decree, the Empress gave freedom to the nobles to bequeath both estates and estates, and by law abolished any distinction between estates and estates. In fact, this meant that the nobility received a mass of lands, which the law had until then considered state-owned, as hereditary property.

With Anna, the practice of distributing state lands to nobles, which was stopped by Peter, came into fashion, and the land was already given full ownership.

In the same year, the Empress established the so-called Land Noble Cadet Corps for the children of nobles. One of the rights that students of the gentry corps enjoyed was the right to be promoted to officers, “without being among soldiers, sailors and other lower ranks.” In 1736, the service life of nobles was limited to 25 years, and the age of entry into service was set at 20 years. Until this age, a nobleman was obliged to receive a home or government education, and a strict system was created to check the quality of his education, in the form of noble reviews, to which young men had to appear starting from the age of 13. It was during the reign of Anna Ioannovna that the nobility's monopoly on the ownership of land and peasants was established.

During the reign of Anna Ioannovna there was a gradual growth of industry. The Berg Regulations, approved by Anna Ioannovna in 1739, made it possible to begin the privatization of state-owned factories and manufactories. The shortage of workers at enterprises was ordered to be replenished by purchasing peasants to work in factories, but without land and “incomplete villages” (decree of 1736). This gave new industrial impetus. Thus, according to some estimates, the export of iron from Russia in the 1730s. increased by 5, and bread by 22 times (according to Anisimov E.V.). The development of trade was also facilitated by the successful development industrial production, primarily ironworking, and by the end of the 1730s. Russia has taken first place in the world in the production of cast iron.

In conditions of further feudalization Russian state and the growth of market-oriented landownership, the bourgeoisie in Russia developed and merged with the state and the feudal sector of production. According to the historian, all the oldest merchant families in Moscow were closely connected with the absolutist state and feudalism: taking advantage of government privileges and loans, being exempt from taxes, services and billets, receiving a monopoly on the sale of goods and the use of forced serf labor (according to A.I. Aksenov .). The bourgeois way of life in Russia, therefore, in contrast to Western Europe did not strive for liberation from the dictates of the absolutist state and feudalism, but organically merged with them.

Capitalist England, which accounted for over half of Russian exports, became Russia's key trading partner at this time. Especially iron, copper, wood, hemp, potash, blubber. In fact, Russia is gradually turning into the main raw materials partner of London, which is striving in every possible way to achieve privileges from St. Petersburg. In 1731, in accordance with a new trade agreement, tariffs were significantly reduced for English goods.

In 1734, London, not without the help of direct bribes to a number of high Russian officials, achieved the conclusion of a new Anglo-Russian treaty, according to which the British were allowed transit trade with Persia. The only favorable condition for Russia for this transit trade for the British was that English goods to Persia through Russia had to be transported on Russian ships. For this purpose, a shipyard was created in Kazan with the help of English businessmen.

The British managed to persuade St. Petersburg that the ships launched for Caspian trade would sail under the British flag, but with Russian sailors. Even British trading posts were created on the territory of Azerbaijan, not without the help of the Russians themselves. There, English cloth was exchanged for Persian silk - and brought English merchants up to 80% of the profit! (see Yukht. A.I.). It turned out that the Russian authorities were creating trade competitors for themselves! Such a policy can hardly be called national.

But Anna’s government, for the first time since Peter I, drew attention to the almost plight of the army and navy, which found themselves in an orphan situation after the death of Peter the Great. The construction of new combat ships has begun in the Baltic. A new staffing schedule was approved and regular exercises and voyages were resumed. In the army, thanks to the efforts of the President of the Military Collegium, Field Marshal Minich, it was possible to carry out some reforms (following the Prussian model), which raised the fallen combat effectiveness of the Russian army. In particular, the artillery stock was increased, new uniforms were introduced, and new guns appeared. However, these measures were not comprehensive in nature and could not raise the combat effectiveness of the army and navy to the level of Peter the Great's time. In general, this influenced rather modest foreign policy achievements.

In foreign policy, the government's course was more active, thanks to which Russia further strengthened its global position. Thus, during the successful War of the Polish Succession (1733-1735), Russia managed to place its protege, Augustus III, on the throne of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and thereby prevent the appearance of an anti-Russian candidate of France in the form of Stanislav Leszczynski on the Polish throne. French diplomacy responded by managing to involve the Ottoman Empire in the war with Russia. Russian diplomacy, in order to enlist Iran's support in the war against Istanbul, transferred in 1735 the former Persian lands along the western and southern shores of the Caspian Sea, conquered by Peter I. In addition, in Russian-Turkish war(1735-1739) the Austrian monarchy became an ally of Russia. And, nevertheless, the entire burden of the war fell on the Russian army, which in this war won victories over the Turks and Crimean Tatars, but at the same time paid a huge price - up to 120 thousand people!

It is striking that of the total number, only a small part (8-9%) of those killed were killed in battle (according to N. Petrukhintsev). The army suffered the main damage from thirst, disease, and epidemics. The war highlighted the poor quality of food, supplies and medical care. The Belgrade Peace brought shamefully modest results to Russia: Russia received Azov, without the right to maintain a garrison in it and build fortifications.

To protect against the steppe inhabitants, fortifications were erected on the southern and southeastern borders of the empire under Anna Ioannovna; Russia, through the Orenburg expedition (1734-1744), slowly but steadily penetrated deep into the Great Steppe. It is no coincidence that in 1731, the biys and elders of the Junior Kazakh Zhuz swore allegiance to Empress Anna. But in the empire itself, in the national outskirts of Bashkiria, uprisings broke out from time to time throughout the 30s (1735-1736, 1737-1738, 1739-1740). The rebels were dissatisfied with the seizure by the authorities of the communal lands of the Bashkirs for the construction of fortresses there and the transfer of part of the land to Russian landowners. These uprisings were brutally suppressed. Moreover, not only units were sent to suppress them regular army

, but also “faithful” Bashkirs and Mishars (service Tatars). Problems with the integration of the eastern outskirts of the Lower Volga region and the Southern Urals occurred in the subsequent period.

Tsarist time of Ivan Antonovich and Anna Leopoldovna.

As a result of another night palace coup organized by Field Marshal Minich, Biron was arrested, deprived of all positions and sent into exile. The news of Biron's arrest joyfully spread around St. Petersburg and the entire empire. However, this changed little in the system of the political regime, where everything remained in the hands of foreigners and people infinitely far from the urgent needs of the country. After the fall of Biron, John's mother, Princess Anna Leopoldovna of Brunswick, was proclaimed ruler of Russia, her husband Anton Ulrich was declared generalissimo of all Russian land and naval forces, and Count Minich was declared first minister. The powerful Minikh became the next victim of palace intrigues. He was removed following the denunciation of the clever political intriguer Osterman. Now Osterman became the head of the Cabinet of Ministers, while he managed to survive 5 reigns and all the temporary workers before him.

The new ruler Anna Leopoldovna turned out to be politically much weaker and absolutely careless than her aunt Anna. She was even more burdened by government affairs, spending all her time playing cards with her trusted friends, reading novels and discussing new outfits. In order to somehow consolidate her precarious position in the state, Anna Leopoldovna distributed awards en masse and undeservedly left and right, devaluing titles and ranks. The Prussian envoy Mardefeld in July 1741 noted the “fruits” of such a generous policy of the government of Anna Leopoldovna: “The current government is the mildest of all that have existed in this state. The Russians abuse this. They steal and rob from all sides and are still extremely dissatisfied, partly because the regent does not talk to them ... "

The high society of St. Petersburg was dissatisfied with the dominance of the Germans Osterman, Levenwolde, Duke Anton Ulrich, the Saxon ambassador Moritz Linar, the favorite of Anna Leopoldovna. Anna Leopoldovna's husband, Anton Ulrich, in turn, tried to take the reins of power into his own hands, especially in the military department, but was met with rebuff from his wife, who openly neglected him. Chaos reigned in government affairs. Everyone was intriguing against each other as usual. “There is unrest in internal affairs,” this is how the English Ambassador Finch described the situation at the Russian court.

And then there were plans of the conventionally called “German party” - to declare Anna Leopoldovna empress in the event of the death of her one-year-old son. The infant Emperor John Antonovich, being in the cradle, did not even suspect what political passions were boiling near his cradle. According to the historian A. Sakharov, it was “the power of the Brunswickers that awakened Russian national consciousness, which opposed the dominance of foreigners and the neglect of the country’s national interests.” It is difficult to argue here, if only because all the people reigning at the head of Russia did not even speak Russian.

The precariousness of the position of the “Brunswick family” also lay in the fact that everyone could see the daughter of Peter the Great, Elizabeth, whom the guards adored. Her house in St. Petersburg was open to guards soldiers, she gave them gifts and baptized their children. “You are the blood of Peter the Great!” they told her. “You are the spark of Peter!” According to one researcher, she was considered the leader of the “Russian party” opposing the “German party” (according to M. Evgenieva).

It is curious that the driving force in the fight against the “German party” in St. Petersburg was the French diplomatic court (ambassador Marquis La Chetardie associated with Princess Elizabeth’s personal physician Lestok) in close contact with the Swedish court. The Swedes, in conditions of political instability, tried to regain the lands lost in the Northern War in the Baltic states by starting a war with Russia (1741-1743). But the Swedish court chose an original pretext for war, conveying to St. Petersburg that the Swedes supposedly intended to fight to rid Russia of the “yoke of foreigners.” Which Swedes could become the liberators of Russia is well remembered from the events of the Time of Troubles. One way or another, the government of Anna Leopoldovna, at war with the Swedes, in this case acted as the sole sovereign of the state interests of Russia. A situation arose when a more Russian (her mother was non-Russian) applicant for throne - Elizabeth, than the German-speaking Anna Leopoldovna was supported by Russia’s geopolitical opponents - the French and Swedes. This turn of events indicates the largely conditional nature of the confrontation-division of “Russians against the Germans” - in the struggle for power. Moreover, Tsarevna Elizabeth herself was supported within the country by many foreigners in the Russian service, who were aware of the precarious position of the Brunswick family.

In turn, Anna Leopoldovna was careless about the numerous information that came to her about a coup being prepared against her in favor of Elizabeth. This carelessness cost her not only the loss of power, but also the freedom of her entire family and her husband. And fate probably had in store for her royal son Ivan Antonovich the most tragic fate of all the crowned Russian emperors. The next palace coup, carried out with the help of the guards by Elizabeth Petrovna, on the night of November 25, 1741, led not only to the change of the next emperor, but also stabilized and strengthened the political regime absolute monarchy and statehood as a whole, softening the factor of foreign “dominance” that irritates many Russian nobles.

1. general characteristics era of palace coups

The overstrain of the country's forces during the years of Peter's reforms, the destruction of traditions, and violent methods of reform caused an ambiguous attitude of various circles of Russian society towards Peter's legacy and created conditions for political instability.

From 1725 after the death of Peter I and until Catherine II came to power in 1762, six monarchs and many political forces behind them replaced the throne. This change did not always take place peacefully and legally, which is why this period of V.O. Klyuchevsky did not quite accurately, but figuratively and aptly called " era of palace coups".

2. Prerequisites for palace coups

The main reason that formed the basis of the palace coups was the contradictions between various noble groups in relation to Peter's legacy. It would be a simplification to consider that the split occurred along the lines of acceptance and non-acceptance of reforms. And the so-called “new nobility”, which emerged in the years of Peter thanks to its service zeal, and the aristocratic party tried to soften the course of reforms, hoping in one form or another to give a respite to society, and, first of all, to themselves. But each of these groups defended their narrow-class interests and privileges, which created fertile ground for internal political struggle.

Palace coups were generated by an intense struggle between various factions for power. As a rule, it most often came down to the nomination and support of one or another candidate for the throne.

Active role in political life The country at this time began to play the role of the guard, which Peter raised as a privileged “support” of the autocracy, which, moreover, took upon itself the right to control the compliance of the personality and policies of the monarch with the legacy that her “beloved emperor” left.

The alienation of the masses from politics and their passivity served as fertile ground for palace intrigues and coups.

To a large extent, palace coups were provoked by the unresolved problem of succession to the throne in connection with the adoption of the Decree of 1722, which broke the traditional mechanism of transfer of power,

3. The struggle for power after the death of Peter I

Dying, Peter did not leave an heir, having only managed to write with a weakening hand: “Give everything...”. Opinion at the top about his successor was divided. "Chicks of Peter's Nest" (A.D. Menshikov, P.A. Tolstoy , I.I. Buturlin , P.I. Yaguzhinsky etc.) spoke out for his second wife Catherine, and representatives of the noble nobility (D.M. Golitsyn , V.V. Dolgoruky and others) defended the candidacy of their grandson, Pyotr Alekseevich. The outcome of the dispute was decided by the guards who supported the empress.

accession Catherine 1 (1725-1727) led to a sharp strengthening of the position of Menshikov, who became the de facto ruler of the country. Attempts to somewhat curb his lust for power and greed with the help of the Supreme Privy Council (SPC) created under the empress, to which the first three collegiums, as well as the Senate, were subordinate, led nowhere. Moreover, temporary worker planned to strengthen his position through the marriage of his daughter with Peter’s young grandson. P. Tolstoy, who opposed this plan, ended up in prison.

In May 1727, Catherine 1 died and, according to her will, 12-year-old Peter II (1727-1730) became emperor under the regency of the VTS. Menshikov's influence at court increased, and he even received the coveted rank of generalissimo. But, having alienated old allies and not gaining new ones among the noble nobility, he soon lost influence on the young emperor and in September 1727 he was arrested and exiled with his entire family to Berezovoye, where he soon died.

A significant role in discrediting Menshikov’s personality in the eyes of the young emperor was played by Dolgoruky, as well as a member of the Military Technical Cooperation, the Tsar’s educator, nominated for this position by Menshikov himself - A.I. Osterman - a deft diplomat who knew how, depending on the balance of power and the political situation, to change his views, allies and patrons.

The overthrow of Menshikov was, in essence, an actual palace coup, because the composition of the military-technical cooperation changed, in which aristocratic families began to predominate (Dolgoruky and Golitsyn), and A.I. began to play a key role. Osterman; the regency of the military-technical cooperation was put to an end, Peter II declared himself a full-fledged ruler, surrounded by new favorites; a course was outlined aimed at revising the reforms of Peter I.

Soon the court left St. Petersburg and moved to Moscow, which attracted the emperor due to the presence of richer hunting grounds. The sister of the Tsar's favorite, Ekaterina Dolgorukaya, was engaged to Peter II, but during preparations for the wedding, he died of smallpox. And again the question of the heir to the throne arose, because With the death of Peter II, the Romanov male line was cut short, and he did not have time to appoint a successor.

4. Supreme Privy Council (SPC)

In the conditions of a political crisis and timelessness, the Military Technical Council, which by that time consisted of 8 people (5 seats belonged to the Dolgorukys and Golitsyns), decided to invite the niece of Peter I, Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, to the throne, since back in 1710 she was married by Peter to the Duke of Courland , was widowed early, lived in cramped material conditions, largely at the expense of the Russian government.

It was also extremely important that she had no supporters or any connections in Russia. As a result, this made it possible, luring her with an invitation to the brilliant St. Petersburg throne, to impose her own conditions and obtain her consent to limit the power of the monarch.

D.M. Golitsyn took the initiative to compile really limiting autocracy " condition ", according to which:

1) Anna pledged to rule together with the military-technical cooperation, which was actually turning into the highest governing body of the country.

2) Without the approval of the military-technical cooperation, it could not legislate, impose taxes, manage the treasury, declare war or make peace.

3) The Empress did not have the right to grant estates and ranks above the rank of colonel, or to deprive them of estates without a trial.

4) The Guard was subordinate to the military-technical cooperation.

5) Anna undertook not to marry and not to appoint an heir, and if any of these conditions were not fulfilled, she was deprived of the “Russian crown.”

There is no consensus among scientists in assessing the nature and significance of the “rulers’ plot.” Some see in the “conditions” a desire to establish an “oligarchic” form of government instead of autocracy, which would meet the interests of a narrow layer of high-born nobility and lead Russia back to the era of “boyar self-will.” Others believe that this was the first constitutional project to limit the arbitrariness of the despotic state created by Peter, from which all segments of the population, including the aristocracy, suffered.

Anna Ioannovna after a meeting in Mitau with V.L. Dolgoruky, sent by the military-technical cooperation for negotiations, accepted these conditions without further hesitation. However, despite the desire of members of the military-technical cooperation to hide their plans, their content became known to the guard and the general public." nobility ".

From this environment new projects for the political reorganization of Russia began to emerge (the most mature belonged to Peru V.N. Tatishchev ), which gave the nobility the right to elect representatives of the highest authorities and expanded the composition of the military-technical cooperation. Specific demands were also put forward aimed at facilitating the conditions of service of the nobles. D.M. Golitsyn, realizing the danger of isolating the military-technical cooperation, met these wishes halfway and developed a new project that involved limiting autocracy to a system of elected bodies. The highest of them remained the VTS of 12 members. Previously, all issues were discussed in the Senate of 30 people, the Chamber of Nobility of 200 ordinary nobles and the House of Citizens, two representatives from each city. In addition, the nobility was exempt from compulsory service.

Supporters of the inviolability of the principle of autocracy, led by A. Osterman and F. Prokopovich, who attracted the guard, were able to take advantage of the disagreements between adherents of the constitutional limitation of the monarchy. As a result, having found support, Anna Ioannovna broke the “conditions” and restored autocracy in full.

The reasons for the failure of the “supreme leaders” were the short-sightedness and selfishness of the majority of members of the military-technical cooperation, who sought to limit the monarchy not for the sake of the interests of the entire country, or even the nobility, but for the sake of preserving and expanding their own privileges. Inconsistency of actions, political inexperience and mutual suspicion of individual noble groups, who were supporters of the constitutional order, but feared to strengthen the military-technical cooperation with their actions, also contributed to the restoration of autocracy. The bulk of the nobility was not ready for radical political changes.

The final word belonged to the guard, which, after some hesitation, eventually supported the idea of ​​an unlimited monarchy.

Finally, not the least role was played by the foresight and unprincipledness of Osterman and Prokopovich, the leaders of the party that supported the preservation of autocracy.

5. Reign of Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740)

From the very beginning of her reign, Anna Ioannovna tried to erase even the memory of “conditions” from the consciousness of her subjects. She liquidated the military-technical cooperation, creating in its place a Cabinet of Ministers headed by Osterman. Since 1735, the signature of the 3rd cabinet of ministers, by her decree, was equal to the signature of the empress. Dolgoruky, and later Golitsyn, were repressed.

Gradually, Anna went to satisfy the most urgent demands of the Russian nobility: their service life was limited to 25 years; that part of the Decree on Single Inheritance was cancelled, which limited the right of nobles to dispose of the estate when it was transferred by inheritance; making it easier to obtain an officer's rank. For these purposes, a cadet corps of nobles was created, upon completion of which they were awarded officer rank; It was allowed to enroll nobles in the service from infancy, which gave them the opportunity to receive an officer rank “based on length of service” upon reaching adulthood.

An accurate description of the personality of the new empress was given by V.O. Klyuchevsky: “Tall and corpulent, with a face more masculine than feminine, callous by nature and even more callous during early widowhood... amidst court adventures in Courland, where she was pushed around like a Russian-Prussian-Polish toy, she, already 37 years old , brought to Moscow an angry and poorly educated mind with a fierce thirst for belated pleasures and rough entertainment".

Anna Ioannovna's amusements were very expensive for the treasury, and although she, unlike Peter, could not stand alcohol, the maintenance of her courtyard cost 5-6 times more. Most of all, she loved to watch the jesters, among whom were representatives of the most noble families - Prince M.A. Golitsyn, Count A.P. Apraksin, Prince N.F. Volkonsky. It is possible that in this way Anna continued to take revenge on the aristocracy for her humiliation by “conditions”, especially since the Military-Technical Cooperation did not at one time allow her Kurland member to enter Russia favorite - E. Biron.

Not trusting the Russian nobility and not having the desire, or even the ability, to delve into state affairs herself, Anna Ioannovna surrounded herself with people from the Baltic states. The key role at court passed into the hands of her favorite E. Biron.

Some historians call the period of Anna Ioannovna's reign "Bironovshchina", believing that its main feature was the dominance of the Germans, who neglected the interests of the country, demonstrated contempt for everything Russian and pursued a policy of arbitrariness towards the Russian nobility.

However, the government course was determined by Biron’s enemy - A. Osterman, and the arbitrariness was rather carried out by representatives of the domestic nobility, led by the head of the Secret Chancellery A.I. Ushakov. And the Russian nobles caused no less damage to the treasury than foreigners.

Favorite, hoping to weaken the vice-chancellor's influence A. Osterman , managed to introduce his protege into the Cabinet of Ministers - A. Volynsky . But the new minister began to pursue an independent political course, developed a “Project for the Improvement of Internal State Affairs,” in which he advocated for the further expansion of the privileges of the nobility and raised the issue of the dominance of foreigners. By this he displeased Biron, who, teaming up with Osterman, managed to get Volynsky charged with “insulting her imperial majesty” and bring him to the chopping block in 1740.

Soon Anna Ioannovna died, appointing her niece's son as successor Anna Leopoldovna , Duchess of Brunswick, infant Ivan Antonovich under the regency of Biron.

In the face of general discontent among the nobility and especially the guard, which the regent tried to disband, the head of the military college, Field Marshal Minich carried out another coup d'état. But Minich himself, famous for the words: "Russian state has the advantage over others that it is controlled by God himself, otherwise it is impossible to explain how it exists", soon miscalculated his own strength and ended up in retirement, letting Osterman take first place.

6. Reign of Elizabeth Petrovna (1741-1761)

On November 25, 1741, the “daughter” of Peter the Great, relying on the support of the guard, carried out another coup d’etat and seized power. The peculiarities of this coup were that Elizaveta Petrovna had broad support ordinary people the city and the lower guards (only 17.5% of the 308 guards participants were nobles), who saw in her the daughter of Peter, all the hardships of whose reign had already been forgotten, and her personality and deeds began to be idealized. The coup of 1741, unlike others, had a patriotic overtones, because was directed against the dominance of foreigners.

Foreign diplomacy tried to take part in the preparation of the coup, seeking to obtain political and even territorial dividends through its assistance to Elizabeth. But all the hopes of the French ambassador Chetardy and the Swedish ambassador Nolken ultimately turned out to be in vain. The coup was accelerated by the fact that the ruler Anna Leopoldovna became aware of Elizabeth’s meetings with foreign ambassadors, and the threat of forced tonsure as a nun hung over the lover of balls and entertainment.

Having seized power, Elizaveta Petrovna proclaimed a return to her father’s policies, but she was hardly able to rise to such a level. She managed to repeat the era of the reign of the great emperor more in form than in spirit. Elizabeth began by restoring the institutions created by Peter 1 and their status. Having abolished the Cabinet of Ministers, she returned to the Senate the significance of the highest state body, and restored the Berg and Manufactory Collegium.

The German favorites under Elizabeth were replaced by Russian and Ukrainian nobles, who were more interested in the affairs of the country. So, with the active assistance of her young favorite I.I. Shuvalova Moscow University was opened in 1755. On the initiative of his cousin, from the late 1740s. de facto head of government P.I. Shuvalova , in 1753 a decree was issued “on the abolition of internal customs and petty duties,” which gave impetus to the development of trade and the formation of an internal all-Russian market. By decree of Elizabeth Petrovna in 1744, the death penalty was actually abolished in Russia.

At the same time her social politics was aimed at transformation of the nobility from the service class into the privileged class and the strengthening of serfdom. She instilled luxury in every possible way, which led to a sharp increase in the costs of the nobles for themselves and the maintenance of their court.

These expenses fell on the shoulders of the peasants, who in the era of Elizabeth finally turned into “baptized property”, which could be sold without the slightest remorse, exchanged for a purebred dog, etc. The attitude of the nobles towards the peasants as “talking cattle” was caused and ended by that time cultural schism Russian society, as a result of which the Russian nobles, who spoke French, no longer understood their peasants. The strengthening of serfdom was expressed in the landowners obtaining the right to sell their peasants as conscripts (1747), as well as to exile them without trial to Siberia (1760).

In her domestic and foreign policy, Elizaveta Petrovna took national interests into account to a greater extent. In 1756, Russia, on the side of a coalition of Austria, France, Sweden and Saxony, entered the war with Prussia, supported by England. Russia's participation in " Seven Years' War "1756-1763 brought the army of Frederick II to the brink of disaster.

In August 1757, at the Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf, the Russian army S.F. Apraksin as a result of the successful actions of the detachment of General P.A. Rumyantseva achieved her first victory. In August 1758, General Fermor at Zorndorf, having suffered significant losses, managed to achieve a “draw” with Frederick’s army, and in August 1759 at Kunersdorf the troops of P.S. Saltykov was defeated.

In the fall of 1760, Russian-Austrian troops captured Berlin and only the death of Elizabeth Petrovna on December 25, 1761 saved Prussia from complete disaster. Her heir, Peter III, who idolized Frederick II, left the coalition and concluded a peace treaty with him, returning to Prussia everything lost in the war.

Despite the fact that Elizaveta Petrovna, unlike her father, used unlimited power not so much in the interests of the state, but to satisfy her own needs and whims (after her death, 15 thousand dresses remained), she, wittingly or unwittingly, prepared the country and society for the next era of transformation. During the 20 years of her reign, the country managed to “rest” and accumulate strength for a new breakthrough, which occurred in the era of Catherine II.

7. Reign of Peter III

Elizaveta Petrovna's nephew, Peter III (the son of Anna's elder sister and the Duke of Holstein) was born in Holstein and from childhood was brought up in hostility to everything Russian and respect for everything German. By 1742 he found himself an orphan. Childless Elizabeth invited him to Russia and soon appointed him as her heir. In 1745 he was married to a stranger and unloved Anhalt-Zerbst Princess Sophia Frederica Augusta (named Ekaterina Alekseevna in Orthodoxy).

The heir had not yet outlived his childhood, continuing to play with tin soldiers, while Catherine was actively engaged in self-education and thirsted for love and power.

After the death of Elizabeth, Peter antagonized the nobility and the guard with his pro-German sympathies, unbalanced behavior, the signing of peace with Frederick II, the introduction of Prussian uniforms, and his plans to send the guard to fight for the interests of the Prussian king in Denmark. These measures showed that he did not know, and most importantly, did not want to know the country he led.

At the same time, on February 18, 1762, he signed the manifesto “On the granting of liberty and freedom to all Russian nobility", which freed nobles from compulsory service, abolished corporal punishment for them and turned them into a truly privileged class. Then the terrifying Secret Investigative Office was abolished. He stopped the persecution of schismatics and decided to secularize church-monastic land ownership, and prepared a decree on the equalization of all religions. All these measures met the objective needs of Russia's development and reflected the interests of the nobility, but his personal behavior, indifference and even dislike for Russia, mistakes in foreign policy and insulting attitude towards his wife, who managed to achieve respect from the nobility and the guard, created the preconditions for his overthrow. In preparing the coup, Catherine was guided not only by political pride, the thirst for power and the instinct of self-preservation, but also by the desire to serve her new homeland.

8. Results of the era of palace coups

Palace coups did not entail changes in the political, much less social system society and boiled down to a struggle for power among various noble groups pursuing their own, most often selfish, interests. At the same time, the specific policies of each of the six monarchs had their own characteristics, sometimes important for the country. In general, the socio-economic stabilization and foreign policy successes achieved during the reign of Elizabeth created conditions for more accelerated development and new breakthroughs in foreign policy that will occur under Catherine II.

Anna Ioannovna was a Russian empress who reigned from 1730 to 1740, the niece of Peter I, the daughter of his brother and co-ruler Tsar Ivan Alekseevich. Her reign is usually associated with the flourishing of favoritism (Bironovism) and a passion for entertainment events in the spirit of the famous Ice House.

However, it would be unfair to reduce the decade of Anna Ioannovna’s reign to just this. For all her ambiguity, Empress Anna managed to contribute to the greatness of Russia.

Izmailovskaya princess

Princess Anna was born in 1693. She spent her childhood in the royal palace in Izmailovo. The Dowager Tsarina Praskovya Feodorovna ruled her little world as if the stormy transformations of Peter I had never happened in Russia. Her three daughters, of whom Anna was the middle, grew up in the seclusion of the tower, like the princesses of pre-Petrine times, communicating only with servants, mothers and nannies, jesters and pious wanderers. However, Praskovya Fedorovna had to come to terms with some new trends: the princesses had teachers - a German and a Frenchman - who taught them literacy, arithmetic, languages, dancing and etiquette. Izmailovo had a court theater and its own orchestra.

Duchess of Courland

When the Northern War ended, Peter decided to strengthen the position of the Russian crown in the Duchy of Courland ( West Side modern Latvia). To achieve this, in 1709 it was decided to marry the young Duke of Courland, Friedrich Wilhelm, with one of the Russian princesses. Peter invited Tsarina Praskovya Fedorovna to choose which of her daughters was to become the duchess. She pointed to Anna, who by that time had turned 16 years old. A year later, a magnificent wedding took place in St. Petersburg. Celebrations and balls lasted two months. In January 1711, the young people went to Mitava, the capital of Courland.

However, before reaching his possessions, Friedrich Wilhelm died on the road. Contemporaries claim that the reason for this was excessive libations. The day before, the young Duke decided to compete with Peter I to see who could outdrink whom. Anna returned to her mother. A year later, Peter nevertheless sent his niece to Courland as a dowager duchess. But not alone. Pyotr Bestuzhev-Ryumin departed with her for Mitava, who was ordered to help the young widow and look after her. He was keeping an eye on it. After some time, it became known in St. Petersburg that the already middle-aged Bestuzhev - he was 30 years older than Anna - was her lover.

In 1727, Bestuzhev was returned to St. Petersburg with a scandal. Anna did not grieve for her dear friend for long. A few months later, Ernst Johann Biron captured the heart of the Duchess of Courland. Anna kept this love until the end of her life.

Empress and autocrat of Russia

In 1730, the young Emperor Peter II, the son of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich and grandson of Emperor Peter, died. This was the last offspring of the Romanov family in the male line. The result of the noble conspiracy was the invitation to Anna Ioannovna to reign, contrary to the will of Catherine I, who, before her death, bequeathed the throne to the grandson of Peter the Great, Karl Peter Ulrich (the future Peter III). The conspirators, who are usually called “supreme leaders” in literature, decided that Anna, who spent many years in a foreign land and, according to rumors, did not shine with either intelligence or talents, would become their obedient tool.

It was decided to limit the power of the Empress by the so-called “Conditions” - a document that contained Anna Ioannovna’s obligations not to interfere in state affairs. However, in reality it turned out completely differently. Anna obediently signed the “Conditions,” but upon arriving in Russia, she discovered that she had supporters. On February 25, 1730, the Empress, in the presence of the court and the “supreme officials,” tore up the “Conditions.”

Reign of Anna Ioannovna

For a long time in Russian history and fiction There was an idea about the “dark decade” of Anna Ioannovna’s reign, about Bironovism and the dominance of the Germans at court. However, recent historical research suggests that this is partly an exaggeration. In fact, Anna and the people with whom she surrounded her throne were able to do a lot of useful things for Russia.

The program of Anna Ioannovna’s reign boiled down to the following main tasks:

The task of reforming the army was set in connection with the need to reduce expenses, since even in the previous reign the question of the exorbitant tax burden on the peasantry had arisen;

There was also talk about the need to review the staff of government agencies in order to streamline their work and reduce costs;

The need to create a fair and equal court for all was declared;

The Senate was reformed. His work, interrupted during the previous reign, was restored on the basis of Peter's decrees.

The Empress did a lot for fleet reform. Under her, shipbuilding resumed, and regular exercises began again in the Baltic Sea. A Military Naval Commission was established, which played a decisive role in the development of the Russian fleet. Finally, in 1732, the closed port in Arkhangelsk was reopened and restored, and the shipyard in Solombala also became operational.

During Anna's reign, a decisive blow was dealt to the Crimean Khanate, Russia captured the Turkish fortress of Khotyn, received the fortress of Azov, part of the territory of Right Bank Ukraine, territories in the North Caucasus, and a protectorate of the Russian crown was declared over the union of Kazakh tribes - the Junior Zhuz.

However, the activities of the Secret Chancellery, interrogations under torture, exile and executions seriously overshadowed the reign of the suspicious and very afraid of conspiracies Anna Ioannovna and left a dark imprint on it.

All this was called “Bironovism,” since it was on the empress’s favorite that public opinion placed all the blame for the activities of the Secret Chancellery. Subsequently, archival documents showed Biron’s non-involvement in the investigative cases of the Secret Chancellery. Moreover, with all his undisguised dislike for the Russian people, Biron was able to benefit our country: it was he who began the competent breeding of horses in Russia, for which he had a real passion.

Anna Ioannovna Romanova
Russian Empress

Years of life: 1693-1740
Reign: 1730-1740

Second daughter of Ivan V Alekseevich (brother and co-ruler of Tsar Peter I) and Praskovya Fedorovna Saltykova, niece.

Anna Ioanovna short biography

At the age of 3, Anna was left without a father; she lived with her mother and sisters Ekaterina and Praskovya in the village of Izmailovo until she was fifteen. She studied history, reading, calligraphy, geography, foreign languages, dancing.

On October 31, 1710, she was given by her uncle Peter I in marriage to the Duke of Courland, Friedrich Wilhelm. This marriage was concluded with the aim of securing Russia's right to use the Courland (Baltic) ports. The wedding celebrations lasted for two months, during which time the newly-made husband Friedrich caught a cold and, having left with his wife for the capital of Courland, Mitava, died on January 9, 1711, 40 km from St. Petersburg. Despite the death of the Duke, Peter ordered Anna to live in Mitau and did not allow her to stay in Russia for a long time.

Conditions of Anna Ioanovna's reign

After her death, Anna was invited on January 25, 1730 to Russian throne by the Supreme Privy Council at the suggestion of V. L. Dolgorukov and D. M. Golitsyn. Believing that 37-year-old Anna Ioannovna had no supporters or connections in Russia, they made this decision.

According to the agreements, Anna Ivanovna agreed to govern the country only together with the Supreme Privy Council, and it was to become supreme body management. She did not have the right to make laws, impose taxes, manage the treasury, declare war or make peace. Without the approval of the Council members, she could not grant estates and ranks. Anna could not marry and appoint an heir to the throne without the consent of the Supreme Privy Council. If the conditions were not met, she was deprived of the crown.

Empress Anna Ioanovna

However, having come to power, Anna Ioannovna immediately dissolved the Supreme Privy Council (1730), restored the importance of the Senate, established the Cabinet of Ministers (1731), which included G. I. Golovkin, A. I. Osterman, A. M. Cherkassky. Church affairs were entrusted to Feofan Prokopovich. Next, the Office of Secret Investigation Cases was recreated, headed by A.I. Ushakov (the central body of political investigation).

Shortly before the coronation, Anna Ioannovna issued a manifesto on the nationwide oath to the heir appointed by the empress. On April 28, 1730, in Moscow, in the Assumption Cathedral, Feofan Prokopovich performed the wedding and anointing of Empress Anna to the throne.

During the reign of Anna Ivanovna, the decree on single inheritance was canceled (1731), the Gentry Cadet Corps was established (1731), and the service of nobles was limited to 25 years. Anna's inner circle consisted mostly of foreigners (E.I. Biron, K.G. Levenwolde, B.X. Minich, P.P. Lassi). Under Anna, the ruler, the chamberlain Ernest-Johann Biron had enormous influence on the course of state affairs - favorite of Anna Ioanovna until the end of life.

The years of Anna Ioanovna's reign - Bironovschina

“Bironovschina,” which personified political terror, embezzlement, disrespect for Russian traditions, and debauchery of morals, became one of the dark pages in Russian history. Pursuing a pro-noble policy, Anna Ioannovna was irreconcilable with manifestations of noble opposition. Anna did not forgive Golitsyn and Dolgoruky for their speeches in January - February 1730 and were later imprisoned, exiled, and executed.

In 1740, Anna Ivanovna and her entourage dealt with the cabinet minister L.P. Volynsky and his followers, who sought to limit the influence of foreigners on the domestic and foreign policy of Russia.

During Anna's reign, a military reform was carried out in the army under the leadership of B.X. Minich, the Izmailovsky and Horse Guards regiments were formed.
In 1733 - 1735 Russia contributed to the establishment of the Elector of Saxony, Stanislaus Augustus (August III), on the Polish throne. The war with Turkey (1735 - 1739) ended with the Peace of Belgrade, which was unfavorable for Russia.

The successes of Anna Ioanovna's politics

By order of Empress Anna, construction and casting began in the Kremlin
Tsar Bell: Architect I.F. Michurin drew up the first Moscow plan in Russian history, focused on streamlining urban development. To control the strengthening of customs control around Moscow, the Company Wall was laid. In 1732, a decree was issued on the installation of glass lanterns in Moscow, thereby marking the beginning street lighting in the city. In 1732, the Peter and Paul Cathedral was consecrated by her.

In 1732 Anna ordered the opening of the first Cadet Corps, which prepared nobles for military and public service, but in 1736 limited the compulsory nature of this service to 25 years. The nobles were given the right to receive education at home and only periodically “appear at shows and undergo examinations.” Anna Ioannovna considered it harmful to teach ordinary people to read and write, since “learning can distract them from menial work” (decree of 1735). By another decree on October 29, 1735, she prescribed the establishment of schools for the children of factory workers.

The successes of the foreign policy of Anna's reign in the 1730s. confirm Russia's trade agreements with Spain, England, Sweden, China and Persia.
Anna 1 Ioannovna went down in history as a lover of “curiosities” (dwarfs and giants, strange animals and birds, fairy tales and witches), she really liked the jokes of jesters.

Judging by the surviving correspondence, Empress Anna Ioannovna was a classic type of landowner lady. She loved to gossip about the court, the personal lives of her subjects, and gathered around her many jesters who amused her. She was superstitious, enjoyed shooting birds, and loved bright clothes.

On August 12, 1740, the Empress’s niece, Anna Leopoldovna, who was married to Prince Anton-Ulrich of Brunswick in 1739, had a son, Ivan, whom the Empress declared heir to the Russian throne. And E.I. Biron was appointed his regent.

On October 17, 1740, Anna Ioannovna, at the age of 47, died of a “stroke” in St. Petersburg, and 2-month-old Ivan, under the regency of the Duke of Courland Biron, became the Russian sovereign Ivan VI Antonovich.

Doctors listed the cause of death as gout combined with stone disease. During the autopsy, a stone the size of a little finger was found in the kidneys, which was allegedly the main cause of death.

Anna Ioannovna was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg.

In literature, her image is reflected in the novel “Word and Deed” by Valentin Pikul, “Prince Nikita Fedorovich” by M. N. Volkonsky, “Ice House” by I. I. Lazhechnikov.

Anna Ioannovna had no children.