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Transactional analysis is a useful psychological model designed to reflect and analyze human behavioral functioning as it manifests itself individually and in groups. This model covers the philosophy, concept and methods that promote people’s understanding of themselves and the personal characteristics of interaction with the environment. became the core starting point for the formation of this concept. E. Bern is considered the author of the concept. Wherein transactional analysis as a psychological model, has acquired a significantly larger scale. Its specificity lies in its simple presentation accessible language. Its fundamental principles are absolutely elementary and universally accessible.

The basis of this concept is the postulate that states that an individual, being in certain conditions, can perform actions based solely on one of three self-positions that have clear differences.

Transactional analysis by Eric Berne is considered a rational method for understanding behavioral reactions, based on the conclusion that each individual can learn to think for himself, trust himself, openly express his own feelings, make independent decisions, and build close contacts.

Berne's Transactional Analysis

Berne's theory of transactional analysis is simultaneously an analysis and a psychocorrectional influence. Everyone at birth has the ability to develop their own capabilities for the benefit of society and themselves, to work productively and creatively and to enjoy life. The very phrase “transactional analysis” in literal translation means interaction analysis.

Transactional analysis by Eric Berne is based on the ability of subjects to understand their own behavioral reactions, to separate inadequate patterns from their own personality. Since the individual has the right to choose, he has the opportunity to become independent, free from his own past, instilled stereotypes of behavior, thereby changing the established “life scenario” (fate). The difference between the described concept and others is that it does not focus on individual behavioral reactions, but rather refers to more significant and lasting forms and consequences of behavior.

Transactional analysis of communication is aimed at establishing more open and true interactions between subjects and between internal structures personality. A transaction is a unit of communicative interaction that can be a stimulus or a reaction, that is, directed at or emanating from a person. Analysis of the communication process, presented as a sequence of transactions, reveals the causes of problems and disruptions in human interactions.

According to Berne, human personality is characterized by the presence of three components - ego states or floors (tiers). To simplify understanding, he called these states (tiers): parent, adult and child. Each individual had parents or people fulfilling their role, so everything that the child copied and saved in himself continues to exist in his psyche all his life, gradually being somewhat transformed and modernized. This will be the “parent” ego state. Simply put, in each individual live the parents who raised them in childhood and continue to raise them to this day, which is manifested in moral attitudes and moral guidelines, bias and today's behavior. The parent in the subject is responsible for his conscience and occupies the upper tier of the personality, being the most fragile link. For example, in the process of alcohol intoxication, the “parent” is the first to switch off, which can manifest itself in dishonesty, immorality, and often immorality of behavior.

The “adult” ego state is responsible for analyzing reality and assessing possibilities. This state is a personality structure that adequately responds to current events specifically “here and now.” The “adult” ego state perceives and transforms information received in the present, like a computer. In addition, this ego state is also a mediator in the internal relationships between parent and child.

Every subject was once a baby, so echoes from childhood are found in the adult existence of the individual as the ego state “child”. This state is characterized by being under the restraining, permissive and provoking influence of the “parent”. This manifests itself in the reproduction of slightly altered children's behavioral reactions, such as guilt, shame, unreasonable fear, excessive anxiety, resentment, expectation of a miracle, fantasies, protests, childishness, carelessness, fun, laughter.

The child ego state is responsible for receptivity, emotionality, intuition, creative self-expression and inappropriate behavior. That is, in every personality there is a little girl or boy.

Transactional analysis of communication characterizes a mentally healthy and successful subject as autonomous, coordinated and conflict-free work of all three states. General behavioral reactions are under the control of the “adult” ego state.

With intrapersonal conflicts, in situations where the “adult” loses power, as a result of which he cannot regulate the relationship between the “parent” and the “child,” various dead-end situations occur that lead to problems of a psychological nature, for example, bad mood, conflicts, depression, neuroses and etc.

Every ego state is vital because it carries out certain functions. Hence, all violations of communicative interaction are associated with the suppression of one state or its detection in situations that this state should not control.

Psychotherapy, transactional analysis according to Bern, should “revive” a suppressed ego state or teach actualization in cases where this is necessary for harmonious interaction. From the perspective of this concept, for optimal personal functioning, the harmonious coexistence in an individual of all three states of the self is necessary. The task of structural analysis is to identify the relationship between personality states, help in recognizing and correcting intrapersonal problems in order to adapt and eliminate pathology.

Berne's detailed theory of transactional analysis offers a number of definitions necessary for understanding what happens during communicative interaction between people, namely game, stroking, extortion, early decisions and prohibitions, life script.

A fixed and unconscious behavioral pattern in which an individual seeks to avoid full contact (intimacy) through manipulative behavior is called a game. For example, phrases like: “look what you did to me,” “if it weren’t for you.”

Transactional analysis games are one of a series of incremental hidden transactions with a clear, specific and predictable outcome that is desired by one of the players.

Stroking refers to transactions responsible for inducing positive feelings or negative emotions. Hence, strokes can be positive, for example, “I like you”, negative, for example, “you are unpleasant to me”, conditional, for example, “I would like you more if...” and unconditional - “I accept you exactly as you are.” "as you are."

Extortion is a method of behavioral response with the help of which individuals carry out habitual attitudes, generating in themselves negative emotions, forcing others to calm them down. The extortion is usually received by the initiator of the game (that is, the manipulator) at the end of the game.

Early decisions and inhibitions are one of the main terms of transactional analysis, which mean information transmitted from parents to the child at the childhood stage, from the “child” state due to the experiences, anxieties and concerns of the parents. Such prohibitions can be compared with unchanging behavior patterns. The child's response to this information is the child's making “early decisions.” In other words, the child develops behavior formulas that stem from “prohibitions.”

The life script is an analogy to Adler’s “lifestyle”. It covers prohibitions (parental messages), early decisions (response to the prohibition), games that embody early decisions, extortions that justify early decisions, expectations and hypotheses about the end of the “life play”.

Transactional analysis games are a complex of transactions characterized by hidden motivation, a chain of moves that contain a trap or a catch. Winning is a specific emotional state towards which the player feels an unconscious desire

Transactional analysis of interaction aims to help the individual become aware of his own games, life scenario, self-states and, if necessary, make fresh decisions related to behavioral response and construction later life. The essence of psychocorrectional work is to free the individual from the implementation of imposed behavioral programs and help him gain independence, spontaneity, and the ability to make full contacts (close relationships).

Transactional analysis psychotherapy is mainly adopted from. Structural analysis of the self-position involves display and interaction through techniques based on role playing games, with accompanying support for the actual and hypothetical nature of transactions. There are mainly two main problems, namely contamination, which consists in mixing two different ego-positions, and exceptions, which consists in strictly limiting ego-states from each other.

Transactional analysis methods are used to solve various communication problems when normal interaction within oneself and between people is disrupted. This method examines four potential life positions that determine the attitude towards the environment and one’s own personality:

- you're good - I'm good or you're fine - I'm fine;

- you are bad - I am good or you are not ok - I am ok;

- you're good - I'm bad or you're okay - I'm not okay;

- you are bad - I am bad.

The first position is considered the main postulate of life and represents those attitudes that make an individual satisfied with life. If all subjects adhered to this position, then there would be no need for transactional analysis. External circumstances force individuals to choose other attitudes, as a result of which three other positions appeared.

The second position is guided by people predisposed to antisocial behavior and manipulation of the environment. Such people are convinced that mutually beneficial cooperation between subjects is impossible; they consider it impossible for themselves to openly ask for something from society, and therefore, in order to get what they want, they always try to deceive another individual.

The third position is held by subjects who consider themselves unworthy. That is, they are convinced that they are not worthy of high earnings, happy life, the best partner. Such individuals are constantly tormented by their own inferiority and feelings of guilt. They exist as if according to some fatal scenario. Every day, these subjects cede their own positions in life to the surrounding individuals, while leveling out their interests.

The fourth position belongs to persons who are dissatisfied with their own existence, and therefore deeply unhappy. Often this position leads individuals to suicide attempts. Bern believed that every individual has all the resources to become a happy person.

Transactional analysis of interaction allows subjects to look at themselves, as if from the outside, and find within themselves the resources necessary to make changes.

In addition, transactional conflict analysis is successfully used to predict and prevent the occurrence of confrontations in interpersonal contacts. For permission conflict situation First of all, you need to be able to remain in the position of an adult. And then, you should try to bring your opponent to an adult position. For this purpose, it is recommended to give consent first and then ask a question.

The methods of transactional analysis, formed by Berne, have several stages: the theory of ego states or structural analysis, transactional analysis of communicative interaction and activity (based on the definition of “transaction” as the interaction of the self-positions of two individuals who entered), analysis of games and life scenarios (script analysis).

Today, transactional analysis training is quite in demand, which allows you to reach a qualitatively new level of professionalism. This method provides the opportunity for personal growth and professional development in a wide range of professions that involve intense interpersonal contacts.

Transactional Analysis Theory

The identification of ego positions in the theory of transactional analysis is based on three axiomatic postulates:

- every adult now was previously a child, who in each personality is represented by the “child” self-state;

- every subject with normally formed brain structures is potentially capable of adequately assessing reality (the ability to systematize incoming data from outside and accept rational decisions refer to the “adult” self-state;

- each individual had or still has today parents or persons who replaced them (there is a parental principle in every personality, which takes the form of the “parent” self-state).

For Berne, the “adult” is, as it were, an arbiter between the self-states “child and parent.” An adult decides, by analyzing information, which behavioral reactions best suit specific circumstances, which patterns should be abandoned, and which, on the contrary, should be included.

One self-state can be “contaminated” by another self-state.

Transactional analysis examples, the individual confuses the parental rules for the self-state of the adult here-and-now reality (thus the adult self has become contaminated by the parent ego-state) when beliefs are taken as facts (that is, the adult ego has become contaminated ego-state “child”).

By observing the verbal and non-verbal components of behavior, ego positions in a person can be diagnosed. Transactions are verbal and nonverbal interactions that occur between people. That is, a transaction is an exchange of influences between the self-states of the talking subjects. Such influences can be unconditional and conditional, negative and positive. In addition, transactions can be parallel, hidden and intersecting.

Parallel transactions are those in which the message coming from one individual is directly complemented by the response of another (question - answer). Such interactions cannot produce conflicts and can last indefinitely (the first law of communication).

Intersecting transactions are characterized by the ability to produce conflicts. In such cases, an unexpected response is given to the message, that is, the wrong ego state is activated. For example, a husband, when asked “where are my keys,” receives from his wife the answer “take it where you put it.” In other words, the parent’s response is given to the message coming from the adult. Such cross-transactions can begin with mutual reproaches and caustic remarks, and end in a quarrel.

The purpose of transactional analysis is to find out which ego state sent the communicative message and which ego state received this message.

Transactional analysis of conflict consists of transforming ordinary transactions into extraordinary ones that coincide with a specific situation. In other words, when the situation requires joint work, the two children are not able to agree, and therefore, not interact productively. For such situations, the “adult” self-state is necessary. Transactions are parallel extraordinary, that is, parallel when the vectors of the send and response coincide, and intersecting, that is, ordinary, when these vectors intersect, as a result of which confrontation occurs (the second law of communication). In the process of analyzing transactions, it is not enough just to establish the fact of intersection of vectors. It is still necessary to determine which personal component suddenly became active and destroyed the communicative interaction. Transactional analysis example, a participant in a transaction responds to the call of an adult ego state to his adult “I” with a child’s I-position, then it is necessary to postpone the solution of the situation until the vectors correspond to a state in which further transactions can become parallel.

Covert transactions span more than two self-states because the information in them is camouflaged under a socially acceptable message, but a response is expected from the action of the hidden message. Therefore, covert transactions contain implicit messages through which people can be influenced covertly (people are not aware that they are being influenced).

Modern transactional analysis views personal change as a model of decisions. The foundation of all therapy modern concept transactional analysis is a belief based on changing such early decisions.

In the modern direction of the described method, the therapist and the client bear mutually directed responsibility for the result of the contract goals, which are aimed at achieving a way out of the scenario, as well as ensuring autonomy.

Modern transactional analysis is focused on personal change. This is its main goal, and understanding of personal problems is not considered as a result of therapy. On the contrary, their awareness is a tool aimed at modifying the personality. The modification itself includes making a decision to transform, and then the active process of its implementation begins.

Modern transactional analysis training includes personality theory, child development and communications, analysis of complex structures and organizations. It represents, in practical application, a system of corrective influence on individuals, couples, families and other groups.

Transactional analysis is a set of techniques that analyze and psychocorrect human destiny and life. This technique is actively used in narcology to treat severe addictions such as alcoholism or drug addiction.

Transactional analysis of E. Bern in addiction medicine

Transactional analysis is a therapy method consisting of three principles:

  • Structural analysis – analysis of the personality and its ego states;
  • Transactional analysis – assessment of interpersonal interactions, communication;
  • Scenario analysis is an assessment of the life scenario that a person subconsciously adheres to throughout his life.

The creator of the technique is Eric Berne, and the analysis is based on the theory of personality, which, depending on a certain situation, can be in three different states: parent, child and adult. Throughout life, a person alternates between one of these ego states.

Concepts

Eric Berne's transactional method of analysis is often called communication assessment, since such a technique analyzes a person based on his interactions with other people.

The main concepts of transactional analysis are:

  • There are no mentally ill people, we are all normal, therefore everyone has the right to respect for their own personality and opinion. Each person has a certain importance and weight in society;
  • Each person builds his life story himself, so he is able to change its scenario without relying on previously made decisions;
  • Every person is capable of thinking, unless there are any acquired or congenital mutations, disorders and injuries, and also except for a state of unconsciousness.

Target

The founder of the technique, Erich Bern, stated that the purpose of such an analysis is to free the patient from addictions that he once acquired and force the patient to return to them again. A person must be taught to interact with other members of society in such a way that he receives some benefit of a psychological nature.

This psychotherapeutic technique helps the patient free himself from life scenarios that were once imposed by someone or something.

The ultimate goal of transaction analysis is the formation of a comprehensively harmonious personality, which is balanced in relation to all Self-states (Adult, Parent, Child). Moreover, the ego-state “Adult” should become autonomous.

General essence

Generally similar analysis is aimed at a deep understanding of one’s own personality, at learning about rational interaction with others, and, most importantly, at destroying and changing an unacceptable life scenario associated with any addiction such as drug addiction or alcoholism.

The use of transactional analysis in therapy allows us to identify and eliminate obstacles that interfere with a full and sober life. The essence is that a person forms new behavioral models and revises his life scenario. The patient understands his inner world and himself, which encourages him to find a certain way out of the current difficulties and make attempts to resolve them.
The video shows the essence and goals of transactional analysis:

Fundamentals and Techniques

Each ego state is a reflection of a specific achievement, and quite often these ego states are combined, influencing each other. Alcohol or drugs have a specific effect on the patient’s ego states and consciousness. As intoxication increases, ego states are expelled. At first, consciousness eliminates the Parent, who adheres to moral prohibitions and critical condemnation.

Then the Adult is eliminated, i.e. memory and rationality. Such processes are determined by a dimmed consciousness, in which the Child does what he wants. When the alcoholic, being in the “Child” state, is deprived of both the “Adult” and the “Parent”, then he can do whatever he wants, for example, sexual gratification or forbidden actions, which he is unable to perform until he expels the “Adult” and "Parent."

A psychiatrist uses transactional analysis techniques to improve a patient's life. The analysis is carried out through a dialogue between the patient and the addict. In fact, the transactional technique was developed for group work, so experts recommend practicing similar therapy in groups of alcoholics or drug addicts anonymous.

Transactional analysis is a contract therapy in which a promise is made and then it is expected to be fulfilled. or drug addiction is seen here as an unacceptable life scenario leading to destruction which the patient must change.

Personal roles according to Bern

Basic exercises

The techniques and exercises of transactional analysis are very diverse and numerous, but they all boil down to the study of human ego states, awareness and further laying out a life plan. Any person can be in the state of an adult, a child or a parent, so it is very important to teach the patient to understand himself in each of these ego states, which are a specific part of the personality.

  • To perform the first exercise, the clinician asks the patient to give an example of each ego state over the past 24 hours, and the patient must describe the feelings and thoughts present in each of these states. The patient needs to remember how he behaved while being in the “Child”, “Parent” and “Adult”.
  • The second exercise is to return to each of the states described by the patient.
  • The third basic exercise requires the patient to remember the last day when he was in the “positive child” state. The patient must clearly imagine and describe his behavior at this moment. Then the memories should concern the “negative child,” where he also describes his behavior, emotions, and thoughts.
  • The fourth exercise is to reproduce and describe the behavior of a “negative and positive parent”, when over the past day he was in a similar state, which particular of his parents he copied at these moments, etc.
  • Exercise 5 consists of constructing an egogram, which is necessary to determine the rating of each state.
  • In the sixth exercise, the psychotherapist finds out whether the patient has a desire to change anything in his own egogram, and clarifies what exactly needs to be changed.

There are quite a lot of exercises; it is impossible to describe them all within the framework of this article, although general principle work is quite clear. The minimum number of classes that a patient must undergo is at least 10, or even more. Depends on the group and situation, as well as the psychoanalyst.

Transactional analysis (TA) is one of the most famous theories in psychology and psychotherapy. Its basis is the position that a person is programmed from childhood by so-called “early decisions” for a certain position in life. He acts according to a “script” written with the participation of his environment: parents, teachers, peers. An adult makes decisions in the present based on patterns of behavior that were once necessary for survival in the past, but are now completely useless.

The key goal of the psychotherapeutic process is to model a personality capable of successfully adapting to the current situation. This is achieved by reviewing existing life positions, identifying unproductive patterns of behavior that interfere with making adequate decisions, and forming new system values ​​based on the needs and capabilities of a person in the current conditions.

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    What is transactional analysis?

    “Transactional analysis (TA) is a theory of personality, as well as systematic psychotherapy used for the purpose of development and correction of personality.” This definition was proposed by psychoanalysts in the 1960s of the twentieth century.

    The founder of this direction of psychoanalysis is the famous psychiatrist Eric Berne (1910-1970). The theory of TA was formed by the author in the 1950s of the twentieth century. Being an actively practicing physician, Berne sought to apply his developments to clinical practice. In 1961, the book “Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy” was published, and five years later the publication “Principles of Group Treatment” (1966) was published. In these two works, key concepts of TA, such as transaction (stroking), game, script, ego state, are introduced and developed for the first time. Today, these terms are widely used in psychotherapeutic practice; the concept of “transaction” is used in philosophy, political science, economics and business.

    As a theory of personality, TA reveals the “psychological anatomy” of a person. To do this, a three-level ego model is used. It makes it possible to understand how the individuality of a person’s behavior is expressed in different types of social interaction.

    In area clinical application TA is a method of psychotherapy that is used in the treatment of all types of mental disorders (from ordinary life problems to psychosis). This method has the role of an auxiliary one, used for individual people and social groups.

    The concept of "ego state" (personality structure)

    The basis of TA is the concept of “ego state” (level), which is a system of interconnected actions, thoughts and feelings. It is seen as a way of expressing personality in this moment and reflects its structure. The latter is described using three states of “I”:

    1. 1. Parent (Exteropsyche);
    2. 2. Child (Archaeopsyche);
    3. 3. Adult (Neopsyche).

    “I-states” are not social roles that people perform, but behavioral stereotypes created by a specific situation.

    The first, most “ancient” level is called “I am the Parent”. This is information received in childhood from parents and other persons significant to the child. This includes advice, rules of conduct, various social norms, prohibitions - any knowledge from the category “what is good and what is bad.” When an individual behaves, subconsciously copying the behavior of one of his close people, he is in the Parent ego state.

    The second level is called “I am a child”. It reveals the emotional beginning in a person. Personality includes all the traits characteristic of a child: gullibility, openness, curiosity, thirst for knowledge, ingenuity. Thanks to these characteristics, the "Child" acquires enormous value, regardless of the age of the subject: it gives the individual charm and warmth.

    The third, most mature level is designated as “I am an adult.” This is the ability of an individual to objectively and impartially assess reality, based on information obtained from his own life experience. On this basis, a person is able to make adequate decisions in a given situation, thinking according to the “here and now” principle.

    Transactions (strokes)

    An individual can turn to another subject at any time from one of three ego states. In turn, the other person is able to respond with one of his ego states. This “exchange” is called a transaction.

    During interactions (transactions) between two people, different self-states can be activated. There are additional, cross and hidden transactions:

    1. 1. Additional transactions are those that meet the expectations of the people in contact and correspond to normal human relations. These interactions do not cause conflict and can last as long as desired.
    2. 2. Cross transactions have the ability to generate conflicts. In such situations, an unexpected reaction to the stimulus occurs, and an inadequate I-state is activated.
    3. 3. Hidden ones differ in that they include more than two I-states. The “message” in them is “hidden” under a socially acceptable stimulus. But a response is expected as a result of the hidden “message” effect. Such interaction forms the basis of psychological games. A similar transaction can be observed, for example, when purchasing real estate. The agent tells the buyer with a smile: “This is a magnificent, spacious apartment in a prestigious area, but its cost will be too high for you.” In such a situation, his words can be heard by both the Adult and the Child. When an Adult hears them, the answer sounds like this: “Yes, you are right, I cannot afford to buy this apartment now, given my salary level.” At the same time, the Child responds like this: “I take it - this is exactly what I want.” The most sophisticated and subtle deceptive combinations are created based on the basic human need in recognition.

    Cross transaction

    Additional transaction

    Hidden transaction

    Life scenario

    In childhood, each person writes a unique, unique “life script”. It is determined by the positions adopted at this age and is recorded in the Child’s I-state. This occurs through transactions between the child and his social environment.

    In a script there is a beginning, middle and end. The basis of the plot is laid in early childhood before the child begins to speak. Initially, it is written non-verbally (positions taken in childhood - “I’m okay”, “I’m not okay”. Then children receive verbal (verbal) script messages from their parents. They can relate to the general life plan (“you will definitely become celebrity”, “you will never achieve anything”), or may relate to certain aspects of the child’s life: he is prescribed a professional scenario (“you are a born artist”), a scenario in relation to gender (“you are so weak, you will never be real a man"), regarding studies, religion, sports, hobbies, etc. In a given situation, parental messages (“attitudes”) can be constructive, destructive (in extreme cases, leading to suicide) and unproductive.

    Later, at each stage of life, minor details are added to the script. By the age of seven, it has already been completely written, and in adolescence the individual can revise it. As adults, people usually do not realize that they themselves have created a “life script” for themselves. They follow it exactly in all situations. Without realizing this fact, life develops in such a way that the personality moves towards the final scene that was laid down in childhood.

    The concepts of ego states and the “life script” are central issues in TA. Discussions around them are still ongoing. However, the “life script” model occupies a central place in psychotherapeutic practice. When analyzing a scenario, a specialist uses the concept to understand how people can subconsciously create problems for themselves and what ways there are to solve them.

    Psychological position

    The term psychological position is also considered one of the key ones in TA. It was introduced into practice by the American psychiatrist Harris in the publication “I’m OK - You’re OK.” The title of the book shows the ultimate goal that a person should achieve in the process transactional psychotherapy.In total, Harris distinguishes 4 main positions:

    • I'm ok - you're ok;
    • I'm not okay - you're not okay;
    • I'm not okay - you're okay;
    • I'm okay - you're not okay;

    Psychological positions exist not only in relation to oneself and others, but also in relation to persons of the opposite sex. Having once accepted a certain position, a person strives to strengthen it in order to strengthen self-esteem and maintain his own perception of the world around him within the usual framework. The psychological position becomes the basis from which people play games and implement the “life scenario”.

    Example: a man who was oppressed by an overbearing single mother as a child takes two positions: “I’m nothing” (I’m not okay) and “Women will continue to hurt me” (women are not okay). Based on this, he selects individuals who play certain “roles” that correspond to his “life scenario.” So, he marries a powerful lady with hysterical character traits. In addition to this, in public he plays a “psychological game”: his wife bullies him, but he steadfastly endures all her humiliations, once again becoming convinced that “all women want to offend him” (collecting “selected feelings”).

    Psychological games

    In childhood, every child sooner or later realizes that in the family some feelings are approved, while others are prohibited. To carry out a transaction (successful social interaction), you need to use only feelings allowed in the family. This decision is made subconsciously. When playing out one or another scenario in adulthood, a person continues to hide true emotions, replacing them with those that were allowed to him in childhood.

    A psychological game is a combination of additional hidden transactions following one another with a predictable outcome. This is a set of transactions with hidden motivation, a sequence of moves containing a “trap”. The “prize” is a certain emotional condition, to which a person strives unconsciously. This is not always some kind of pleasant feeling, pleasure or joy. Often these are negative emotions that are “chosen” for the player and which he “collects” at any opportunity.

    Berne's book "Games People Play" gives many combinations. They can be performed from various states: from the Parental state, when a person copies the actions (game) of loved ones; from the Adult, then everything is thought out according to the “here and now” principle; from Children's, in this case, games come from those experiences, decisions and psychological positions that the child occupied in relation to himself and others in early childhood.

    TA in psychotherapy

    Transactional analysis is a type of interactional psychotherapy that is usually used in a group setting. Patients become familiar with basic concepts, develop their own clear understanding of the mechanisms of behavior and the causes of their disorders in a particular person. The therapist and patients use a board and chalk to work.

    The goal is for group members to understand within which self-state they are functioning in Everyday life(structural analysis). Patients explore their early programming, the “instructions” they received from their parents, and childhood decisions about self-esteem(“I’m okay”, “I’m not okay”) and psychological position.

    Patient autonomy as a key goal of using TA

    To fully realize the potential of adults, patients need to constantly change and improve the patterns of social behavior that they learned as children. When it is discovered that these strategies no longer work, you need to change them to other, more advanced ones. From a TA perspective, this means that the person needs to complete the script and achieve autonomy.

    If any wrong decision was made in childhood, then, using various psychotherapeutic techniques, each patient in the group can re-experience a scene from his childhood, “return” certain situations in which he made an irrational, destructive decision about himself and your future life. Upon completion of the course of sessions, people themselves can form a new life scenario on a conscious and subconscious level and adjust their life position.

    The main task of TA techniques is to help people gain autonomy, the main components of which are a clear awareness of their role and place in society, the ability to adequately set goals and achieve them by interacting with others. Autonomy also implies the ability to successfully exit problem situations, using the full potential of a mature (“adult”) personality.

    The place of TA among other areas in psychology and psychotherapy

    TA is closely related to other areas of psychology, especially to the teachings of Freud. Despite its apparent simplicity, it has a carefully thought out and deeply substantiated theory. Since its creation it has undergone many changes.

    The founder of the movement, Psychiatrist Eric Berne, often pointed out the need for improvement and further development of concepts. His students did this. To promote research in the field of TA, the Eric Berne Prize was established. The peculiarity of this method is that the psychotherapist’s notes are always available to the patient. To facilitate communication with a specialist, all terms are presented in a language understandable to an untrained person.

    Transactional analysis can be used either alone or in combination with methods such as Gestalt therapy, behavior modification, and psychodrama.

Transactional Analysis

Transactional Analysis(synonyms: transaction analysis, transactional analysis, transactional analysis; abbr. TA) represents psychological model, which serves to describe and analyze human behavior, both individually and as part of groups. This model includes philosophy, theory and methods that allow people to understand themselves and the peculiarities of their interaction with others.

The key starting point for the development of TA was psychoanalysis, but TA, as a model, acquired a much more general and large-scale character. The peculiarity of TA is that it is presented in simple and accessible language, and its fundamental principles are extremely simple and accessible to everyone.

The cornerstone of TA is the proposition that the same person, being in a certain situation, can function based on one of three ego states, clearly distinguishable from one another.

Transactional analysis is a rational method of understanding behavior based on the conclusion that every person can learn to trust himself, think for himself, accept independent decisions and express your feelings openly. Its principles can be applied at work, at home, at school, with neighbors - anywhere people deal with people.

The basics of TA theory have been described by Eric Berne and a number of other psychotherapists, as well as several non-psychotherapists. Eric Berne began publishing his observations of human functioning in the early 1960s, and public interest in transactional analysis peaked in the 1970s.

Transactional analysis considers a person primarily as a product of interaction with others and is based on three main general philosophical premises:

  1. All people are "normal" OK); that is, each person has weight, importance, and an equal right to respect.
  2. People have the ability to think (the only exception is those cases when a person is unconscious, or his intelligence is congenital or acquired reduced).
  3. People themselves determine their own destiny and therefore, if they wish, can change their decisions and their lives.

Ego states

According to transactional analysis, three ego states can be distinguished in each of us: Parent, Adult and Child.

  • Parent Ego State(P) contains attitudes and behavior adopted from the outside, primarily from parents. Outwardly, they often express themselves as prejudiced, critical, and caring behaviors towards others. Internally, they are experienced as old parental instructions that continue to influence our inner Child.
  • Adult Ego State(B) does not depend on the age of the individual. It is focused on the perception of current reality and obtaining objective information. It is organized, well-adapted, resourceful and operates by studying reality, assessing its capabilities and calmly calculating.
  • Ego state of the Child(Re) contains all the impulses that arise naturally in a child. It also contains a record of early childhood experiences, reactions and attitudes towards self and others. It is expressed as the “old” (archaic) behavior of childhood. The ego state of the Child is also responsible for the creative manifestations of the personality.

When we act, feel, think like our parents did, we are in the Parent ego state. When we are dealing with current reality, the accumulation of facts, their objective assessment- we are in the Adult ego state. When we feel and behave like we did as children, we are in the Child ego state.

At any given moment, each of us is in one of these three ego states.

Transactions

Transaction is a unit of communication that consists of a stimulus and a response. For example, stimulus: “Hello!”, reaction: “Hello! How are you?". During communication (exchange of transactions), our ego states interact with the ego states of our communication partner. There are three types of transactions:

  1. Parallel(English) reciprocal/complementary) are transactions in which a stimulus emanating from one person is directly complemented by the reaction of another. For example, stimulus: “What time is it now?”, response: “A quarter to six.” IN in this case interaction occurs between the Adult ego states of the interlocutors.
  2. Intersecting(English) crossed) - the directions of stimulus and reaction intersect, these transactions are the basis for scandals. For example, a husband asks: “Where is my tie?”, The wife answers with irritation: “I’m always to blame for everything!!!” The stimulus in this case is directed from the Adult husband to the Adult wife, and the reaction occurs from the Child to the Parent.
  3. Hidden(English) duplex/covert) transactions take place when a person says one thing, but means something completely different. In this case, the words spoken, tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures and attitudes are often inconsistent with each other. Hidden transactions are the basis for the development of psychological games. Psychological game theory was described by Eric Berne in his book The Games People Play. Game analysis is one of the methods used by transaction analysts.

Script theory

Another cornerstone of transactional analysis is scenario theory. First this theory was developed by Eric Berne and improved by Claude Steiner.

Scenario- this is “a life plan drawn up in childhood.” The scenario is chosen by the child based on those proposed by parents and, less often, by society. The decision to choose a scenario is influenced not only by external factors, but also by the will of the child. Even when different children are brought up in the same conditions, they can make completely different plans for their lives. In this regard, Byrne cites the case of two brothers, to whom their mother said: “You will both end up in a mental hospital.” Subsequently, one of the brothers became a chronic mental patient, and the second became a psychiatrist. According to script theory, each of us already in childhood knows the important moments for the script. For most girls, such an important point in the scenario is the number of children she should have.

Counter-scenario- a certain sequence of actions leading to “getting rid” of the scenario. Like the script, the counter-script is laid by the parents, but using a different ego state: the script is laid by the Parent’s Child, while the counter-script is laid by his Parent. For example, for the scenario “You must suffer,” the counter-scenario could be “Your life will improve if you get married successfully.” In this case, Eric Berne drew an analogy of the counter-scenario with “lifting the curse of the evil witch” (from the fairy tale “Sleeping Beauty”).

If it is impossible to act according to the script, a person can form anti-script- “the opposite scenario.” A person who acts directly opposite to his script is nevertheless still susceptible to its influence. The script continues to guide the person, but what the script should have done well, the person does poorly, and vice versa. For example, a man who, in the image of his father, was destined to be a quiet family drunkard, having stopped drinking, immediately abandons his family. Or a young man who was meant to be close to a single mother in old age, and therefore take care of himself and have minimal contact with girls, begins to change girlfriends every week, use drugs and engage in extreme sports. As can be seen in this example, human behavior is still dependent on parental attitudes and therefore predictable.

Thus, the anti-script determines a person’s lifestyle, while the script determines his destiny.

Parents rarely avoid choosing a scenario for their child. Eric Berne describes in one of his books a way to do this: tell the child: “Be happy.” A similar phrase, repeated by a parent, makes it clear to the child that the child himself can choose a scenario for himself with which he will be happy.

It is argued that a parent considers a child an adult only when the child begins to fully fulfill the parental script.

Script theory is explained in detail by Berne in his book What Do You Say After You Say Hello? (“What do you say after you say Hello?”). In the Russian-speaking space, this book is better known under the title “People Who Play Games,” since in most cases it was published under this title.

Areas of use

Transactional analysis is used in psychotherapy, psychological counseling, business consulting, education, and anywhere else people have to communicate with each other.

Literature

References

  • Bern, E. Transactional analysis in psychotherapy: Systemic individual and social psychotherapy. Per. from English - M.: Academic Project, 2006. - 320 p. - (Concepts). - ISBN 5-8291-0741-4.
  • Stewart, Ian; Joines, Vann. Modern transactional analysis. - St. Petersburg: Social and Psychological Center, 1996.
  • Letova, I. Modern transactional analysis.

see also

Links

  • Eric Berne - creator of transactional analysis
  • US Transaction Analysis Association

Wikimedia Foundation.

2010.

in Sociology By March 1939, groups of scientists working in France and America had proven that for a self-sustaining chain reaction, the release of an average of two to four free neutrons during each fission of a uranium nucleus was sufficient. There were growing fears about the possibility of creating atomic bomb

, however, quickly dissipated. Bohr decided not to waste time. Fission physics, like any other new direction in science, undoubtedly provided a vast field for activity. And, since it was possible to work in Princeton with no less success than in Copenhagen, Bohr turned to Wheeler with a proposal for cooperation. They began to further develop the theory of nuclear fission, relying on new experimental data. They carried out experiments with an apparatus assembled on right there in Princeton, in the attic of Palmer's laboratory. The results were initially quite puzzling.

The apparatus mentioned above was needed to study changes in the intensity of fission of the uranium nucleus under the influence of neutrons, each time carrying different amounts of energy. It was found that the greater this energy, the more intense fission occurs, and with its decrease, the intensity of fission, accordingly, also decreases. Such data were quite expected. However, it soon became clear that with a sufficient decrease in neutron energy, the intensity of nuclear fission increases again.

Placzek, who had previously forced Frisch, who was working in Copenhagen, to look for reliable evidence of nuclear fission, quite unexpectedly ended up in Princeton. “What the hell is this: why is the response the same to both fast and slow impacts?!” - he was indignant, sitting at breakfast with Rosenfeld and Bohr.

Returning soon to his office, Niels Bohr already knew the answer to this question. Apparently, the reason for the high intensity of nuclear fission at low energy of acting neutrons is the rare isotope uranium-235 (U 235), which makes up a negligible percentage of the total amount of this element found in nature. Bohr and Wheeler now began to develop this hypothesis in detail. And in new theory two underlying factors were identified.

In the U 235 isotope, the balance between the repulsive force of protons in the nucleus of an atom and the force of surface tension that keeps the nucleus from decay is much more fragile than in the U 238 isotope. Three additional neutrons from uranium-238 stabilize the nucleus and increase the energy barrier that must be overcome to trigger the decay reaction. Consequently, faster neutrons with higher energy are needed to split such a nucleus.

The second of the factors mentioned was the complex composition of the core. More favorable for him equal number protons and neutrons, which is explained by the quantum nature of their subatomic components. Having accepted an additional neutron, U 235 turns into U 236, the nucleus of which has 92 protons and 144 neutrons, that is, an even number of both nucleons. When U 238 accepts an additional neutron, the isotope U 239 is formed with an odd number of neutrons in the nucleus. Uranium-235 “assimilates” the additional neutron and reacts with it much more easily than uranium-238.

The combination of the two factors described above sufficiently explains the significant difference in the behavior of the two isotopes of uranium. Fast neutrons are required to split the stable U 238 nucleus, but the much less stable U 235 nucleus can be split by slow neutrons. Thus, if you make a bomb consisting of a mixture of U 235 and U 238, the action of which will be based on the fission of uranium-235 under the influence of slow neutrons, then chain reaction it will happen slowly. Then it will fade out, and the bomb will not explode.

Now the chances of creating a bomb in the near future, although not completely eliminated, have decreased significantly. Of course, we must not forget about Bohr’s words, which he repeatedly repeated during discussions with colleagues in April 1939: then he declared that making a bomb Can provided that it is made on the basis of pure uranium-235. However, U 235 is a rare isotope and its share in relation to natural uranium is 1:140, that is, an insignificant 0.7%. In addition, U 235 and U 238 chemical properties identical, and therefore using chemical reaction they cannot be separated. This is only possible with the use of special physical methods that make it possible to separate isotopes from each other using an almost imperceptible difference in their mass. Moreover, such work on the scale required to create an atomic bomb required unreasonably large efforts - at the then level of development, it required several tons of uranium-235.