Laboratory workshop in zoology (grade 7). With the help of muscles

Systematic position liver fluke is assigned to the Fasciolidae family, Latin name Fasciolidae, and represents the phylum flatworms. The liver fluke belongs to the class of digenetic flukes, which is headed by the order Echinostomatida, consisting of representatives of the genus Fasciola.

Systematics classifies the developmental life cycle of the liver fluke as a complex type, numbering several participants:

• primary host;
• intermediate host;
• free-living larval stage.

The liver fluke is a hermaphrodite. Each individual has both female and male reproductive organs - the uterus and testes.

Marita liver fluke is a sexually mature individual and has a relatively developed digestive system. The front part of the body is equipped with a mouth that turns into a pharynx. The muscular pharynx flows into the esophagus. The branched intestine is blindly closed. Digestion is the only relatively developed function that the liver fluke is endowed with. The structure of the excretory system is of the protonephridial type, since it closes the central excretory canal running along the entire body, not the anus.

Most flukes, including the fluke, are hermaphrodites. Reproduction and the sexual process occur in the internal organs of the definitive host, and the mollusk, an intermediate host, bears larvae that reproduce asexually.

The male reproductive system consists of a paired vas deferens and a copulatory organelle. When fused, the testes form the ejaculatory canal. The female genital organs are represented by the ovary, vitelline and seminal receptacle, leading to the ootype - a specific chamber for fertilization of eggs. It flows into the uterus, which ends in a hole through which fertilized infective eggs are released.

In its development, the liver fluke is in many ways superior to other species of digenetic flukes.

The fluke has well-developed functions:

The posterior third of the worm's body, immediately behind the ventral sucker, contains the uterus of a multi-lobed configuration. The location of the unpaired branched ovary is the right part of the upper third of the body. Multiple zheltochniks are located on both sides of the individual. The anterior part of the body contains a highly branched network of testes.

The liver fluke causes a difficult to diagnose serious disease called Fascioliasis, which is difficult to respond to therapeutic methods of influence.

The stages of larval development and formation phases of the liver fluke are numerous. The scheme for an adult to achieve sexual reproduction is quite complex. Let's try to illuminate the development cycles of larvae without complex revolutions. If it is possible to simplify the material presented, describe the formation scheme in your comments to the article.

The eggs of the liver fluke reach a size of 80x135 microns. Each egg is oval in shape and brownish-yellow in color. On one pole there is a cap, from under which when favorable conditions the larvae emerge from opposite side the tubercle is located.

The egg of the liver fluke begins to develop only when it enters an aquatic environment with conditions suitable for the process. sunlight acts as an activator, and, after a month, the larvae, or miracidium, of the liver fluke emerge from the eggs.

The body of each miracidia is equipped with:

• cilia, allowing the larvae to move freely in the aquatic environment and confirming the family ties of the liver fluke with ciliated worms;
• a single light-sensitive ocellus provides positive phototaxis, directing the larva towards the light source;
• nerve ganglion - primitive nervous system;
• excretory organs.

The tail contains germ cells responsible for parthenogenesis. The anterior end of the body is equipped with an enzyme-forming gland, allowing miracidia to freely penetrate and develop in the intermediate host.

At this stage the larva does not feed. It develops due to the nutrients accumulated in the previous stage. Its lifespan is limited and is only a day. During this time, the miracidium must find the snail and penetrate the body of the small prudovik.

The sporocyst has a sac-shaped dermal-muscular body filled with germ cells. It lacks a circulatory system and a digestive process, feeding on the surface of the body. The nervous system and sensory organs are in their infancy. At this stage, the reproduction of the liver fluke is carried out by simple division of sporocysts - breaking into parts, they form a myriad of individuals of the daughter generation.

In redia, the larvae of the daughter generation, in contrast to its previous stage, the formation of life-supporting functions is actively taking place:

• the digestive system, consisting of the digestive tube, pharynx and mouth;
• pseudovagina - a rudimentary reproductive system capable of breeding new larval generations.

Some stages of the liver fluke life cycle occupy a special place. During the migration period, redia, localized in the liver tissue, still through the same path of parthenogenesis, form the next type of larva - cercariae.

It should be noted some structural features of the cercaria that significantly distinguish it from previous stages of larvae. The body of the cercaria is endowed with a brain, as well as a formed but not used digestive system and an ocellus - an organelle of vision. The function of fixation in the internal organs of the host, which is characteristic of marita, is well developed.

The final larval stage of the liver fluke occurs in the liver of the mollusk. The body of the cercaria is endowed with a powerful tail, providing the larva with freedom of movement. After the cercaria leaves the body of the pond snail, it strives from the water to get to the shore, where the last metamorphosis occurs.

Coming onto land, the cercaria discards its tail. It turns into a cyst state, attaching itself to coastal plants, falling into the so-called adolescaria stage. The cyst can remain viable long time until it is swallowed by a herbivore, which is the main host of the liver fluke.

This is an invasive larval stage, dangerous not only for animals, but also for people whose lifestyle is connected with bodies of water.

Thus, in the liver fluke there are two stages at which fasciola is considered infectious:

1. Miracidium poses a threat of infecting an intermediate host.
2. Adolexaria stage affecting livestock and humans. It causes a disease leading to cirrhosis of the liver, which threatens the patient with death.

Pathogenesis, diagnosis and preventive measures

In one case, infection occurs after the patient eats poorly fried liver and ingests so-called transit eggs. In another, vegetables grown in the coastal zone were not washed after watering. Regardless of the type of lesion, Fascioliasis is considered one of the most dangerous infectious diseases.

Public prevention comes down to the destruction of shellfish along the banks of water bodies. Great importance given to grazing livestock - they are transferred to other pastures.

In conclusion, it should be noted that the life cycle of the liver fluke occurs exclusively with changes in the intermediate and primary hosts. Localized in the liver tissue and bile ducts of domestic ungulates, the fluke causes a very severe disease. Livestock is rapidly losing hair and body weight. Without appropriate treatment, exhaustion and death quickly occur.

Humans are rarely affected by flukes. Larval stages that invade the liver tissue cause the development of Fascioliasis, a dangerous disease for humans that affects the liver, gallbladder, choleretic ducts and often the pancreas.

From polychaete worms, oligochaete worms evolved. Oligochaete worms comprise 4000-5000 species. Their body length ranges from 0.5 mm to 3 m. All body segments are identical. There are no paropodia; each segment has four pairs of setae. In sexually mature individuals, a thickening appears in the anterior third of the body - a glandular girdle.

Rice. 65. Representatives of oligochaete worms: 1 - earthworm; 2 - tubifex

Oligochaete worms, particularly earthworms, play a huge role in soil formation. They mix the soil, reduce its acidity, and increase fertility. Aquatic oligochaete worms contribute to the self-purification of polluted water bodies and serve as food for fish.

The body structure of polychaete and polychaete worms is in many ways similar: the body consists of segments - rings. The number of segments in different species of oligochaete worms ranges from 5-7 to 600. Unlike polychaete worms, oligochaete worms lack paralodia and antennae; small bristles protruding from the body wall are preserved. Each segment has two pairs of dorsal and two pairs of ventral setae. They represent the remnants of the supporting elements of the disappeared paralodies that their ancestors had. The bristles are so small that, for example, in earthworms they can only be detected by touch, by running your finger from the back of the worm's body to the front. The small number of bristles on the body of these worms gave the name to the entire class - Oligochaetes. The bristles serve these worms when moving in the soil: curved from front to back, they help the worm stay in the hole and quickly move forward.

Oligochaete worms, like polychaetes, have a head section where the mouth is located, and an anal lobe at the posterior end of the body. The skin epithelium is rich in glandular cells, which is due to the need for constant lubrication of the skin when moving in the soil.

The internal structure of oligochaete worms can be examined using the example of an earthworm.

Muscles and movement. Under each epithelium there is developed musculature, consisting of circular and longitudinal muscles (Fig. 66). By alternating contraction of these muscles, the body of the worm can shorten and lengthen, allowing the worm to move. An earthworm can swallow soil particles, passing them through the intestines, as if eating its way, and at the same time assimilating the nutrient particles contained in the soil.

Rice. 66. Cross section through the body of an earthworm: 1 - bristles; 2 - epithelium; 3 - circular muscles; 4 - longitudinal muscles; 5 - intestine; 6 - dorsal blood vessel; 7 - abdominal blood vessel; 8 - ring blood vessel; 9 - excretory organs; 10 - abdominal nerve chain; 11 - ovary

Laboratory work No. 2

• Subject. External structure of an earthworm; movement; irritability.
• Target. Study the external structure of the earthworm, its method of movement; conduct observations of the worm's reaction to irritation.
• Equipment: a vessel with earthworms (on damp porous paper), a paper napkin, filter paper, a magnifying glass, glass (about 10 x 10 cm), a sheet of thick paper, tweezers, a piece of onion.

Progress

1. Place the earthworm on the glass. Consider the dorsal and ventral sides, the front and back, and their differences.
2. Use a magnifying glass to examine the bristles on the ventral side of the earthworm. Watch how it crawls across the paper and listen for any rustling on the wet glass.
3. Find out the earthworm's reaction to various stimuli: touch it with a piece of paper; bring a freshly cut piece of onion to the front of his body.
4. Sketch the earthworm, make the necessary symbols and captions for the drawing.
5. Draw conclusions. Based on observations of earthworms, name the characteristic external signs class Oligochaete worms.

The digestive system of an earthworm consists of well-defined sections: pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, midgut and hindgut.

The ducts of the calcareous glands flow into the esophagus. The substances secreted by these glands serve to neutralize acids in the soil. The dorsal wall of the midgut forms an invagination, which increases the absorptive surface of the intestine. Earthworms feed on rotting plant debris, including fallen leaves, which they drag into their burrows.

The circulatory, nervous and excretory systems of oligochaete and polychaete worms are similar in structure. However, the circulatory system of earthworms differs in that it contains muscular ring vessels capable of contraction - “hearts”, located in 7-13 segments.

Due to their underground lifestyle, the sense organs of oligochaete worms are poorly developed. The organs of touch are sensory cells located in the skin. There are also cells that perceive light.

Breath. Gas exchange in oligochaete worms occurs over the entire surface of the body. After heavy, torrential rain, when water floods the worm holes and air access to the soil is difficult, earthworms crawl out to the soil surface.

Reproduction. Unlike polychaete worms, oligochaete worms are hermaphrodites. Their reproductive system is located in several segments of the anterior part of the body. The testes lie in front of the ovaries.

Fertilization in oligochaete worms is cross-fertilization (Fig. 67, 1). When mating, the sperm of each of the two worms is transferred to the spermatheca (special cavities) of the other.

Rice. 67. Mating (1) earthworms and cocoon formation (2-4)

On the front of the worm's body there is a clearly visible swelling - a belt. The glandular cells of the girdle secrete mucus, which, when dried, forms a muff. Eggs are first laid in it, and then sperm come from the seminal receptacles. Fertilization of the eggs occurs in the clutch. After fertilization, the sleeve slides off the body of the worm, becomes compacted and turns into an egg cocoon, in which the eggs develop. Once development is complete, small worms emerge from the eggs.

Laboratory work No. 3

• Subject. Internal structure of an earthworm.
• Target. Explore internal structure and find signs of increased complexity in the internal organization of the earthworm compared to planarians.
• Equipment: ready-made earthworm preparation, microscope.

Progress

1. Place the earthworm specimen on the microscope stage and examine it at low magnification.
2. Using the textbook, determine which worm organs you can distinguish under a microscope.
3. Draw what you saw under the microscope, make the necessary symbols and inscriptions.
4. Note the signs of increasing complexity in the organization of the earthworm as a representative of the phylum annelids in comparison with representatives of flat and roundworms.

Leeches. The class of leeches (Hirudinea) belongs to the type of annelids, in which there are about 400 species (Fig. 68). They originated from oligochaete annelids. Leeches live in fresh waters, some in seas and moist soil. In the tropics there are land species. Leeches move by alternately attaching suction cups to the substrate; many are capable of swimming. The body length of representatives of various types of leeches ranges from a few millimeters to 15 cm.

Rice. 68. Different kinds leeches: 1 - fish: 2 - horse; 3 - cochlear; 4 - medical; 5 - two-eyed; 6 - false horse

The body of the leech is flattened in the dorsal-abdominal direction, with two suckers - perioral and posterior. Leeches are colored black, brown, greenish and other colors.

Rice. 69. Scheme of the structure of the digestive system of leeches: 1 - mouth; 2 - pockets for storing blood; 3 - anus

The outside of the leech's body is covered with a rather dense cuticle. The underlying epithelium is rich in mucous glands. Leeches lack parapodia, setae, tentacles and gills. On the anterior segments of animals there are several (one to five) pairs of eyes. Under the epithelium there are circular and very strong longitudinal muscles. In leeches they account for up to 65.5% of the total body volume.

Annelids evolved from primitive (lower) worms with an undifferentiated body, similar to flat ones eyelash worms. In the process of evolution, they developed a secondary body cavity (coelom), a circulatory system, and the body was divided into rings (segments). From primitive polychaete worms, oligochaetes evolved.

Exercises based on the material covered

1. In what environment do oligochaete worms live? Give examples.
2. How is an earthworm adapted to life in soil?
3. What are the structural features of the earthworm's digestive system?
4. Describe the role of earthworms in soil formation processes.

Task 1. Complete laboratory work.

Subject: "External structure and features of the movement of fish."

Goal of the work: explore the features external structure and modes of movement of fish.

1. Make sure that the workplace has everything necessary to perform laboratory work.

2. Using the instructions given in paragraph 31 of the textbook, perform laboratory work, filling out the table as you observe.

3. Sketch appearance fish. Label the body parts.

4. Write down the results of your observations and draw conclusions. Note the features of fish adaptation to the aquatic environment.

Fish are well adapted to life in the aquatic environment. They have a streamlined body shape, fins, and sensory organs that allow them to navigate in the water.

Task 2. Fill out the table.

Task 3. Write down the numbers of the correct statements.

Statements:

1. All fish have a streamlined body shape.

2. The body of most fish is covered with bony scales.

3. The skin of fish has cutaneous glands that secrete mucus.

4. The head of the fish imperceptibly passes into the body, and the body into the tail.

5. The tail of a fish is that part of the body that is bordered by the caudal fin.

6. There is one dorsal fin on the dorsal side of the fish’s body.

7. The fish uses its pectoral fins as oars when moving.

8. Fish eyes do not have eyelids.

9. Pisces see objects located at close distances.

Correct statements: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9.

Task 4. Fill out the table.

Task 5. The body shape of fish is very diverse: bream have a high body and strongly compressed laterally; in flounder - flattened in the dorso-ventral direction; in sharks it is torpedo-shaped. Explain what causes the differences in body shapes in fish.

Because of habitat and movement.

Flounder have a flattened shape because they swim slowly along the bottom.

The shark, on the contrary, moves quickly (the tarpedoid shape ensures fast movement in open water).

The bream's body is flattened laterally because it moves in bodies of water with dense vegetation.

The movement of the worm occurs due to contraction of the muscles of its body, while the length and thickness of its individual parts change.

The movements of all parts of the body consist in the fact that some parts of it lengthen and thin, or, on the contrary, shrink and thicken. As a result of such alternating actions, forward movement occurs. First, its front part stretches forward, and then its back. When the back of his body pulls up, his front begins to move forward. This is how the earthworm moves, which can be observed by placing one individual on a paper sheet.

Let's take a closer look at what makes the earthworm move.

The role of bristles

A worm can crawl on any soil and any surface, but if it finds itself on a damp, smooth surface, it flounders helplessly. During movement, its body easily stretches forward, but with subsequent contraction, the front part no longer moves forward, but, on the contrary, the back part reaches towards the front.

A worm can very easily make its way in any soil, and fishermen know that if they try to pull out a worm that has already climbed halfway into the hole, it will most likely tear. This means that the worm is somehow caught on uneven ground, although this is not noticeable to us, and its skin may look completely smooth.

But to the touch, when you run your finger along his body from the head to the back, and then in the opposite direction, the difference will be immediately noticeable. When held from front to back, it will seem smooth, and from back to front, on the contrary, rough.

The bottom line is that on the body of the worm there are 4 rows of small bristles that are directed back, much like animal hair. Those. it turns out that first we stroke the worm “with the fur”, and then against it. These bristles allow the worm to hook its body onto any existing roughness in the ground and move forward.

The role of the longitudinal and oblongata muscles

The movement of the raincoat occurs due to contractions of the muscles of its skin-muscular sac. Those. when individual parts of its body shorten and thicken due to muscle contraction.

When the worm moves with effort or is drilled, these parts of its body stretch in length and at the same time become thinner. this work It is already carried out with the help of other muscles - ring ones, which encircle its body and are located directly under the skin. Thanks to the contraction of these muscles, the body in this place becomes thinner, forcing it to stretch longitudinally.

Thus, the movement of earthworms is achieved due to the alternating contraction of the annular and longitudinal muscles, and thanks to the bristles, they can rest and catch on any irregularities.

Moving on hard ground

When the worm needs to make a passage in the ground, it drills it with its front tip. However, if he needs to make a move in wet soil, for example, in a swamp, then he acts differently. Namely, it swallows soil with its mouth and passes it through the intestinal tract, and then gets rid of it through the anus. IN morning hours On earthen paths you can often see small pieces of soil that have passed through the intestinal tract of the worm. By gnawing into the soil in this way, the worm in the intestinal tract draws nutritional elements from it.

Nutrition and touch

In addition to rotten vegetation, the worms eat rotten leaves, which they pull into their own underground burrows at nightfall.

The rain cervix has an elongated body, 10-16 cm long. In cross-section, the body is round, but, unlike roundworms, it is divided by annular constrictions into 100-180 segments. Each segment has small elastic bristles. They are almost invisible, but if we run our fingers from the back end of the worm's body to the front, we will immediately feel them. With these bristles, the worm clings to uneven soil when moving.

Picture: earthworm and worm movement in soil

Earthworm Habitat

During the day, worms stay in the soil, making tunnels in it. If the soil is soft, then the worm drills it with the front end of the body. At the same time, he first compresses the front end of the body so that it becomes thin, and pushes it forward between lumps of soil. Then the front end thickens, pushing the soil apart, and the worm pulls up the rear part of the body. In dense soil, the worm can eat its way through the soil through its intestines. Heaps of earth can be seen on the surface of the soil - they are left here by worms at night. They also come to the surface after heavy rain (hence the name rain). In summer, worms stay in the surface layers of the soil, and in winter they dig burrows up to 2 m deep.

Skin-muscle bag

If we take a worm in our hands, we will find that its skin is moist and covered with mucus. This mucus makes it easier for the worm to move through the soil. In addition, only through moist skin does the oxygen necessary for breathing penetrate into the worm’s body.
Under the skin there are circular muscles fused with it, and under them a layer of longitudinal muscles - a skin-muscular sac is obtained. The circular muscles make the body of the worm thin and long, while the longitudinal muscles shorten and thicken. Thanks to the alternating work of these muscles, the movement of the worm occurs.

Body cavity of an earthworm

Figure: internal structure of an earthworm

Under the skin-muscle sac is a fluid-filled body cavity in which the internal organs are located. This body cavity is not continuous, like in roundworms, but is divided by transverse partitions according to the number of segments. It has its own walls and is located under the skin-muscle sac

Digestive organs of an earthworm

Picture: Digestive system of an earthworm

The mouth is located at the anterior end of the body. The earthworm feeds on rotting plant debris, which it swallows along with the soil. It can also drag fallen leaves from the surface. Swallowing is done by the muscular pharynx. The food then enters the intestines. Undigested remains, along with soil, are expelled through the anus at the rear end of the body.

Figure: circulatory system of an earthworm

The earthworm's circulatory system serves to transport oxygen and nutrients primarily to the muscles. An earthworm has two main blood vessels: dorsal blood vessel, along which blood moves from back to front, and abdominal blood vessel, through which blood flows from front to back. Both vessels in each segment are connected to annular vessels. Several thick annular vessels have muscular walls, due to the contraction of which blood moves. From the main vessels, thinner ones depart, which then branch into the smallest capillaries. These capillaries receive oxygen from the skin and nutrients from the intestines, and these substances are released from other similar capillaries that branch in the muscles. Thus, the blood moves all the time through the vessels and does not mix with the cavity fluid. Such a circulatory system is called a closed circulatory system.

Excretory system of an earthworm

Liquid unnecessary, processed substances enter the body cavity. Each segment contains a pair of tubes. Each tube has a funnel at the inner end; processed waste substances enter it and are discharged through the tube through the opposite end to the outside.

Drawing: nervous system earthworm

A pair of nerve trunks runs along the entire body of the worm along the ventral side. In each segment they have developed nerve nodes- it turns out nerve cord. In the front part, two large nodes are connected to each other by ring jumpers - a peripharyngeal nerve ring. Nerves extend from all nodes to various organs.

Sense organs of an earthworm

There are no special sense organs, but sensitive cells in the skin allow the earthworm to sense touch on its skin and distinguish light from dark.

Reproductive system and reproduction of the earthworm

Earthworms are hermaphrodites. Before laying eggs, two worms come into contact for a while and exchange seminal fluid - sperm. Then they disperse, and mucus is released from the thickening (belt) located on the front of the worm. This mucus contains eggs. Then a lump of mucus with eggs slides off the worm's body and hardens into cocoon. Young worms emerge from the cocoon.