Multivariate social development abstract. Multivariate social development. Forms of social change: evolution and revolution

Social development can be reformist or revolutionary in nature.

Reforms can take place in all spheres of public life:

– economic reforms – transformations of the economic mechanism: forms, methods, levers and organization of economic management of the country (privatization, bankruptcy law, antimonopoly laws, etc.);

– social reforms – transformations, changes, reorganization of any aspects of social life that do not destroy the foundations social system(these reforms are directly related to people);

– political reforms – changes in the political sphere of public life (changes in the constitution, electoral system, expansion civil rights and so on.).

The degree of reformist changes can be very significant, up to changes social order or type of economic system: reforms of Peter I, reforms in Russia in the early 90s. XX century

In modern conditions, two paths of social development - reform and revolution - are opposed to the practice of permanent reform in a self-regulating society. It should be recognized that both reform and revolution “treat” an already advanced disease, while constant and possibly early prevention is necessary. Therefore, in modern social science, the emphasis is shifted from the “reform - revolution” dilemma to “reform - innovation”. Under innovation (from the English innovation - innovation, novelty, innovation) is understood an ordinary, one-time improvement associated with an increase in the adaptive capabilities of a social organism in given conditions.

In modern sociology, social development is associated with the process of modernization.

Modernization (from the French moderniser – modern) – this is the process of transition from a traditional, agrarian society to modern, industrial societies. Classical theories of modernization described the so-called “primary” modernization, which historically coincided with the development of Western capitalism. Later theories of modernization characterize it through the concepts of “secondary” or “catch-up” modernization. It is carried out under the conditions of the existence of a “model”, for example in the form of the Western European liberal model; often such modernization is understood as Westernization, that is, a process of direct borrowing or imposition. In essence, this modernization is a worldwide process of replacing local, indigenous types of cultures and social organization with “universal” (Western) forms of modernity.

There are several classifications (typologies) societies:

1) preliterate and written;

2) simple And complex(the criterion in this typology is the number of levels of management of society, as well as the degree of its differentiation: in simple societies there are no leaders and subordinates, rich and poor; in complex societies there are several levels of management and several social strata of the population, located from top to bottom in descending order income);

3) primitive society, slave society, feudal society, capitalist society, communist society (the criterion in this typology is a formational feature);

4) developed, developing, backward (the criterion in this typology is the level of development);

Formational and civilizational approaches to the study of society

The most common approaches to analyzing social development in Russian historical and philosophical science are formational and civilizational.

The first of them belongs to the Marxist school of social science, the founders of which were German economists, sociologists and philosophers K. Marx (1818–1883) and F. Engels (1820–1895).

The key concept of this school of social science is the category “socio-economic formation”.

Despite the relative independence, the type of superstructure is determined by the nature of the base. It also represents the basis of the formation, determining the affiliation of a particular society.

Productive forces are a dynamic, constantly developing element of the method of production, while production relations are static and rigid, not changing for centuries. At a certain stage, a conflict arises between the productive forces and production relations, which is resolved during the social revolution, the breaking of the old basis and the transition to a new stage of social development, to a new socio-economic formation. Old relations of production are being replaced by new ones, which open up space for the development of productive forces. Thus, Marxism understands social development as a natural, objectively determined, natural-historical change of socio-historical formations:

The key concept of the civilizational approach to analysis social development is the concept of “civilization,” which has many interpretations.

The term “civilization” (from the Latin civis - citizen) is used in world historical and philosophical literature:

– as a certain stage in the development of local cultures (for example, O. Spengler);

- like a step historical development(for example, L. Morgan, F. Engels, O. Toffler);

– as a synonym for culture (for example, A. Toynbee);

– as the level (stage) of development of a particular region or individual ethnic group.

Any civilization is characterized not so much by its production basis as by its specific way of life, value system, vision and ways of relating to the outside world.

In the modern theory of civilization, two approaches stand out.

Various researchers have identified many local civilizations (for example, the English historian, sociologist, diplomat, public figure A. Toynbee (1889–1975) counted 21 civilizations in human history), which may coincide with the borders of states (Chinese civilization) or cover several countries (ancient , western). Usually, the entire diversity of local civilizations is divided into two large groups - western and eastern.

Thus, the formation concentrates attention on the universal, general, repeating, and civilization focuses on the local-regional, unique, and peculiar.

A comparative analysis allows us to conclude that the existing approaches in science should not be considered as mutually exclusive. They must be treated from the point of view of the principle of complementarity, taking into account the noted advantages of each approach.

Sample assignment

B1. Write down the word missing in the diagram.

Answer: Revolution.


Social development on the globe is characterized by nonlinearity and multivariance. Currently, there are many societies (societies) that are very different from each other. They all developed differently.

By the nature of social development we can distinguish:
- reforms are, as a rule, slow changes affecting certain aspects of social life. Most often, reforms are carried out “from above”, by the force of power. Reforms can be progressive (lead to positive changes) and regressive (or reactionary, i.e. leading to negative consequences. An example of a progressive reform is the tax reform of Peter the Great. Instead of the household tax, a tax levied on a family without taking into account its size, - he established a poll tax - a tax levied on the soul, that is, on a person. It was more fair to see an example of a reactionary reform: the gradual enslavement of the peasants - they ceased to be free;

Revolutions are sudden, radical changes that lead to upheavals in all spheres of society. An example of a revolution is the February bourgeois revolution in Russia. Its result is the overthrow of the monarchy, a radical restructuring of government and the entire society.

Typology is literally “the science of types,” or classification is division into groups. In its simplest form, societies can be classified into preliterate and literate. Pre-literate societies do not have a written language, but literate societies can pass on knowledge and experience to new generations through written language.

However, this classification has now lost its meaning - in principle, all societies in the modern world are written. Scientists use a different classification:

1. Traditional (agrarian) society. Signs: dominance of agriculture; the predominance of subsistence farming (production for oneself, not for sale); extensive technologies (development of production by attracting additional resources - labor, raw materials); predominance of manual labor; human life obeys the laws of nature; communal, corporate, state ownership dominates, private ownership is not represented; the social structure is sedentary, low social mobility; the basis of society is family and community; human behavior is regulated by traditions and customs; religion plays an important role in the life of society; collectivist consciousness prevails (the team is more important than the interests of the individual).

The Russian society of the pre-Petrine era was an agrarian society. There was no industry in Russia, but the main product was created in agriculture.

2. Industrial society. Signs: dominance of industry; development of machine production, intensive technologies (development of production through the introduction of new, more modern technologies); man is the conqueror of nature; the predominance of private property; social mobility is significant; urbanization processes are rapidly progressing (urban population growth - as industry develops in cities); new classes appear - the proletariat, the bourgeoisie; the class structure of society is becoming a thing of the past; secularization of consciousness occurs (a person is freed from the dependence of the church); law is the main regulator of people’s behavior in society; individualism - main principle consciousness.

Russian society of the 19th century can be considered an industrial society. In Russia of the century before last, industry was most developed, social stratification reached its highest limit - workers worked for pennies, but the economy as a whole developed. Large plants and factories were created.

3. Post-industrial (information) society. Signs: dominance of the service sector; development of new information technologies, ultra-fast communication systems (fax, Internet); human activity has created global problems that threaten the existence of human civilization; production, especially “dirty” production, begins to move beyond the boundaries of this society; very high social mobility (a person can work without being tied to a place - via the Internet); main class – middle (owners of small and medium-sized firms); reducing social stratification; formation of the rule of law and a democratic society; education plays a leading role; science turns into a productive force for the development of society.

The “classic” example of a post-industrial society is modern Japan. This is a society of small shops, salons providing various services, etc. Some Japanese factories are now in other countries. Japan produces scientific knowledge and introduces it into the economy.

The development of society leading to the transition to new type society (from agricultural to industrial, from industrial to post-industrial) is called modernization. Modernization can take place using both internal and external resources. Based on this, they distinguish:

Inorganic (artificial) modernization - occurs through external borrowing, most often carried out by orders of the authorities, and is of a catch-up nature. A typical example is the accelerated, often unprepared modernization of the USSR with the slogans “Catch up and overtake America!” People are often not ready for such modernization; it is carried out with the strain of people and the entire society. Such modernization most often begins in the political and economic spheres;
- organic (natural) modernization - prepared by the entire previous course of development of society, carried out naturally, at the expense of internal reserves. Such modernization, as a rule, begins with the spiritual and social spheres, and only then affects the economy and politics. An example of such modernization is the gradual development of Europe, a change in the mentality of Europeans, and only then - economic and political transformations.

Multivariate social development. Typology of societies

The life of each person and society as a whole is constantly changing. Not a single day or hour we live is similar to the previous ones. When do we say that a change has occurred? Then, when it is clear to us that one state is not equal to another and something new has appeared that did not exist before. How do all the changes occur and where are they directed?

At any given moment in time, a person and his associations are influenced by many factors, sometimes inconsistent with each other and multidirectional. Therefore, it is difficult to talk about any clear, distinct arrow-shaped line of development characteristic of society. Processes of change occur in complex, uneven ways, and their logic is sometimes difficult to grasp. The paths of social change are varied and winding.

We often come across such a concept as “social development”. Let's think about how change will generally differ from development? Which of these concepts is broader and which is more specific (it can be included in another, considered as special case another)? It is obvious that not every change is development. But only that which involves complication, improvement and is associated with the manifestation social progress.

What drives the development of society? What could be hidden behind each new stage? We should look for answers to these questions, first of all, in the system of complex social relations itself, in internal contradictions, conflicts of different interests.

Development impulses can come from society itself, its internal contradictions, and from the outside.

External impulses can be generated, in particular, natural environment, space. For example, a serious problem for modern society has become climate change on our planet, the so-called “ global warming" The response to this “challenge” was the adoption by a number of countries of the world of the Kyoto Protocol, which requires reducing emissions into the atmosphere harmful substances. In 2004, Russia also ratified this protocol, committing itself to environmental protection.

If changes in society occur gradually, then new things accumulate in the system quite slowly and sometimes unnoticed by the observer. And the old, the previous, is the basis on which the new is grown, organically combining the traces of the previous. We do not feel conflict and denial of the old by the new. And only after some time has passed we exclaim in surprise: “How everything has changed around us!” We call such gradual progressive changes evolution. The evolutionary path of development does not imply a sharp break or destruction of previous social relations.

The external manifestation of evolution, the main way of its implementation is reform. Under reform we understand the action of power aimed at changing certain areas and aspects of social life in order to give society greater stability and stability.

The evolutionary path of development is not the only one. Not all societies could solve pressing problems through organic gradual transformations. In conditions of an acute crisis affecting all spheres of society, when accumulated contradictions literally explode the existing order, revolution. Any revolution taking place in society presupposes a qualitative transformation of social structures, the destruction of old orders and rapid innovation. A revolution releases significant social energy, which cannot always be controlled by the forces that initiated the revolutionary changes. It’s as if the ideologists and practitioners of the revolution are letting the “genie out of the bottle.” Subsequently, they try to drive this “genie” back, but this, as a rule, does not work. The revolutionary element begins to develop according to its own laws, often confounding its creators.

That is why spontaneous, chaotic principles often prevail in the course of a social revolution. Sometimes revolutions bury those people who stood at their origins. Or the results and consequences of the revolutionary explosion differ so significantly from the original tasks that the creators of the revolution cannot help but admit their defeat. Revolutions give rise to a new quality, and it is important to be able to timely transfer further development processes into an evolutionary direction. In the 20th century, Russia experienced two revolutions. Particularly severe shocks befell our country in 1917–1920.

As history shows, many revolutions were replaced by reaction, a rollback to the past. We can talk about different types of revolutions in the development of society: social, technical, scientific, cultural.

The significance of revolutions is assessed differently by thinkers. For example, the German philosopher K. Marx, the founder of scientific communism, considered revolutions to be the “locomotives of history.” At the same time, many emphasized the destructive, destructive effect of revolutions on society. In particular, the Russian philosopher N.A. Berdyaev (1874–1948) wrote the following about the revolution: “All revolutions ended in reactions. This is inevitable. This is the law. And the more violent and violent the revolutions were, the stronger the reactions were. There is some kind of magic circle in the alternation of revolutions and reactions.”

Comparing the paths of transformation of society, the famous modern Russian historian P.V. Volobuev wrote: “The evolutionary form, firstly, made it possible to ensure the continuity of social development and thanks to this preserve all the accumulated wealth. Secondly, evolution, contrary to our primitive ideas, was accompanied by major qualitative changes in society, not only in productive forces and technology, but also in spiritual culture, in the way of life of people. Thirdly, to solve new social problems that arose in the course of evolution, it adopted such a method of social transformation as reforms, which, in their “costs,” turned out to be simply incomparable with the gigantic price of many revolutions. Ultimately, as historical experience has shown, evolution is capable of ensuring and maintaining social progress, also giving it a civilized form.”

Typology of societies

Highlighting Various types societies, thinkers are based, on the one hand, on the chronological principle, noting changes that occur over time in the organization of social life. On the other hand, certain characteristics of societies coexisting with each other at the same time are grouped. This allows us to create a kind of horizontal cross-section of civilizations. Thus, speaking about traditional society as the basis for the formation of modern civilization, one cannot help but note the preservation of many of its features and characteristics in our days.

The most established approach in modern social science is the one based on identifying three types of societies: traditional (pre-industrial), industrial, post-industrial (sometimes called technological or information). At the core this approach lies to a greater extent in a vertical, chronological section, i.e., it assumes the replacement of one society by another in the course of historical development. What this approach has in common with the theory of K. Marx is that it is based primarily on the distinction of technical and technological features.

What are the characteristic features and characteristics of each of these societies? Let's look at the characteristics traditional society- basics of formation modern world. An ancient and medieval society is primarily called traditional, although many of its features are preserved in later times. For example, the countries of the East, Asia, and Africa retain signs of traditional civilization today.

So, what are the main features and characteristics of a traditional type of society?

In the very understanding of traditional society, it is necessary to note the focus on reproducing in an unchanged form methods of human activity, interactions, forms of communication, organization of life, and cultural patterns. That is, in this society, the relationships that have developed between people, the methods labor activity, family values, way of life.

A person in a traditional society is bound by a complex system of dependence on the community and the state. His behavior is strictly regulated by the norms accepted in the family, class, and society as a whole.

Traditional society distinguished by the predominance of agriculture in the structure of the economy, the majority of the population is employed in the agricultural sector, working on the land, living from its fruits. Land is considered the main wealth, and the basis for the reproduction of society is what is produced on it. Mainly hand tools (plow, plow) are used; the updating of equipment and production technology occurs quite slowly.

The main element of the structure of traditional societies is the agricultural community: a collective that manages the land. The individual in such a group is poorly identified, its interests are not clearly identified. The community, on the one hand, will limit the person, on the other, provide him with protection and stability. The most severe punishment in such a society was often considered expulsion from the community, “deprivation of shelter and water.” Society has a hierarchical structure, often divided into classes according to political and legal principles.

A feature of traditional society is its closedness to innovation and the extremely slow nature of change. And these changes themselves are not considered as a value. More important is stability, sustainability, following the commandments of our ancestors. Any innovation is seen as a threat to the existing world order, and the attitude towards it is extremely wary. “The traditions of all dead generations loom like a nightmare over the minds of the living.”

The Czech teacher J. Korczak noted the dogmatic way of life inherent in traditional society: “Prudence to the point of complete passivity, to the point of ignoring all rights and rules that have not become traditional, not sanctified by authorities, not rooted by repetition day after day... Everything can become dogma - including the earth , and the church, and the fatherland, and virtue, and sin; science, social and political activity, wealth, any confrontation..."

A traditional society will diligently protect its behavioral norms and the standards of its culture from outside influences from other societies and cultures. An example of such “closedness” is the centuries-old development of China and Japan, which were characterized by a closed, self-sufficient existence and any contacts with foreigners were practically excluded by the authorities. The state and religion play a significant role in the history of traditional societies.

Of course, as trade, economic, military, political, cultural and other contacts between different countries and peoples develop, such “closedness” will be broken, often in a very painful way for these countries. Traditional societies, under the influence of the development of technology, technology, and means of communication, will enter a period of modernization.

Of course, this is a generalized picture of traditional society. More precisely, we can talk about traditional society as a certain cumulative phenomenon, including developmental features different nations at a certain stage. There are many different traditional societies (Chinese, Japanese, Indian, Western European, Russian, etc.), bearing the imprint of their culture.

We understand perfectly well that the societies of ancient Greece and the Old Babylonian kingdom differ significantly in the dominant forms of ownership, the degree of influence of communal structures and the state. If in Greece and Rome private property and the beginnings of civil rights and freedoms are developing, then in societies of the eastern type there are strong traditions of despotic rule, the suppression of man by the agricultural community, and the collective nature of labor. Nevertheless, both are different versions of traditional society.

The long-term preservation of the agricultural community, the predominance of agriculture in the structure of the economy, the peasantry in the population, the joint labor and collective land use of communal peasants, and autocratic power allow us to Russian society over many centuries its development has been characterized as traditional. Transition to a new type of society - industrial- will be implemented quite late - only in the second half of the 19th century.

It cannot be said that traditional society is a bygone stage, that everything associated with traditional structures, norms, and consciousness is a thing of the distant past. Moreover, by thinking this way, we make it difficult for ourselves to understand many problems and phenomena of our contemporary world. And today, a number of societies retain the features of traditionalism, primarily in culture, public consciousness, political system, and everyday life.

The transition from a traditional society, devoid of dynamism, to an industrial-type society reflects such a concept as modernization.

Industrial society born as a result of the industrial revolution leading to the development large industry, new types of transport and communications, reducing the role of agriculture in the structure of the economy and the relocation of people to cities.

The Modern Dictionary of Philosophy, published in 1998 in London, contains the following definition of industrial society:

An industrial society is characterized by the orientation of people toward ever-increasing volumes of production, consumption, knowledge, etc. The ideas of growth and progress are the “core” of the industrial myth, or ideology. Significant role The concept of the machine plays a role in the social organization of industrial society. The consequence of the implementation of ideas about the machine is the extensive development of production, as well as the “mechanization” of social relations, human relations with nature... The boundaries of the development of industrial society are revealed as the limits of extensively oriented production are discovered.

The industrial revolution swept countries earlier than others Western Europe. The first country to implement it was Great Britain. By the middle of the 19th century, the vast majority of its population was employed in industry. Industrial society is characterized by rapid dynamic changes, increased social mobility, and urbanization - the process of growth and development of cities. Contacts and connections between countries and peoples are expanding. These communications are carried out through telegraphic messages and telephones. The structure of society is also changing: it is based not on estates, but on social groups that differ in their place in the economic system - classes. Along with changes in the economy and social sphere changes and politic system industrial society - parliamentarism, a multi-party system are developing, the rights and freedoms of citizens are expanding. Many researchers believe that the formation of a civil society that is aware of its interests and acts as a full partner of the state is also associated with the formation of an industrial society. To a certain extent, it is precisely this society that is called capitalist. The early stages of its development were analyzed in the 19th century by English scientists J. Mill, A. Smith, and the German philosopher K. Marx.

At the same time, during the era of the industrial revolution, there is an increase in unevenness in the development of different regions of the world, which leads to colonial wars, conquests, and the enslavement of weak countries by strong ones.

Russian society entered the period of the industrial revolution quite late, only in the 40s of the 19th century, and the formation of the foundations of an industrial society in Russia was noted only at the beginning of the 20th century. Many historians believe that at the beginning of the 20th century our country was an agrarian-industrial one. Russia was unable to complete industrialization in the pre-revolutionary period. Although this is exactly what the reforms carried out on the initiative of S. Yu. Witte and P. A. Stolypin were aimed at.

Towards the completion of industrialization, that is, to the creation of a powerful industry that would make the main contribution to the national wealth of the country, the authorities returned to the Soviet period of history.

We know the concept of “Stalinist industrialization,” which occurred in the 1930s and 1940s. IN as soon as possible, at an accelerated pace, using primarily funds obtained from the robbery of the countryside, mass collectivization of peasant farms, by the end of the 1930s our country created the foundations of heavy and military industry, mechanical engineering and ceased to depend on the supply of equipment from abroad. But did this mean the end of the industrialization process? Historians argue. Some researchers believe that even at the end of the 1930s, the main share of national wealth was still formed in the agricultural sector, that is, agriculture produced more product than industry.

Therefore, experts believe that industrialization in the Soviet Union ended only after the Great Patriotic War, by the mid-second half of the 1950s. By this time, industry had taken a leading position in the production of gross domestic product. Also, most of the country's population found itself employed in the industrial sector.

The second half of the 20th century was marked by rapid development fundamental science, engineering and technology. Science is turning into an immediate powerful economic force.

The rapid changes that have engulfed a number of spheres of life in modern society have made it possible to talk about the world entering into post-industrial era. In the 1960s, this term was first proposed by the American sociologist D. Bell. He also formulated main features of post-industrial society: creation of a vast service economy, increasing the layer of qualified scientific and technical specialists, the central role of scientific knowledge as a source of innovation, ensuring technological growth, creating a new generation of intellectual technology. Following Bell, the theory of post-industrial society was developed by American scientists J. Gal Breit and O. Toffler.

basis post-industrial society was the structural restructuring of the economy carried out in Western countries at the turn of the 1960s - 1970s. Instead of heavy industry, leading positions in the economy were taken by knowledge-intensive industries, the “knowledge industry.” The symbol of this era, its basis is the microprocessor revolution, the mass distribution of personal computers, information technology, and electronic communications. The pace is increasing manifold economic development, speed of transmission over distance of information and financial flows. With the entry of the world into the post-industrial, information era, there is a decrease in the employment of people in industry, transport, and industrial sectors, and vice versa, the number of people employed in the service sector and in the information sector is increasing. It is no coincidence that a number of scientists call post-industrial society informational or technological.

Characterizing modern society, American researcher P. Drucker notes: “Today knowledge is already being applied to the sphere of knowledge itself, and this can be called a revolution in the field of management. Knowledge is quickly becoming the determining factor of production, relegating both capital and labor to the background.”

Scientists studying the development of culture and spiritual life, in relation to the post-industrial world, introduce another name - postmodern era. (By the era of modernism, scientists understand industrial society. - Author's note.) If the concept of post-industriality mainly emphasizes differences in the sphere of economics, production, and methods of communication, then postmodernism covers primarily the sphere of consciousness, culture, and patterns of behavior.

The new perception of the world, according to scientists, is based on three main features.

Firstly, at the end of faith in the capabilities of the human mind, a skeptical questioning of everything that European culture traditionally considers rational. Secondly, on the collapse of the idea of ​​unity and universality of the world. The postmodern understanding of the world is built on multiplicity, pluralism, absence general models and canons of the development of various cultures. Thirdly: the era of postmodernism views personality differently, “the individual, as responsible for shaping the world, resigns, he is outdated, he is recognized as associated with the prejudices of rationalism and is discarded.” The sphere of communication between people, communications, and collective agreements comes to the fore.

Scientists name increasing pluralism, multivariance and variety of forms of social development, changes in the system of values, motives and incentives of people as the main features of postmodern society.

The approach we have chosen summarizes the main milestones in human development, focusing primarily on the history of Western European countries. Thus, it significantly narrows the possibility of studying the specific features and development features of individual countries. He pays attention primarily to universal processes, and much remains outside the field of view of scientists. In addition, willy-nilly, we take for granted the point of view that there are countries that have jumped ahead, there are those that are successfully catching up with them, and those that are hopelessly behind, not having time to jump into the last carriage of the modernization machine rushing forward. Ideologists of modernization theory are convinced that the values ​​and development models of Western society are universal and are a guideline for development and a role model for everyone.

Society structure

Social institutions:

  • organize human activity into a certain system of roles and statuses, establishing patterns of behavior of people in various spheres of public life;
  • include a system of sanctions - from legal to moral and ethical;
  • organize, coordinate many individual actions of people, give them an organized and predictable character;
  • provide standard behavior of people in socially typical situations.

Society as a complex, self-developing system is characterized by the following specific features:

  1. It has a wide variety of different social structures and subsystems.
  2. Society is not only people, but also the social relations that arise between them, between spheres (subsystems) and their institutions. Social relations are diverse forms of interaction between people, as well as connections that arise between different social groups(or inside them).
  3. Society is capable of creating and reproducing the necessary conditions own existence.
  4. Society is a dynamic system, characterized by the emergence and development of new phenomena, obsolescence and death of old elements, as well as incompleteness and alternative development. The choice of development options is made by a person.
  5. Society is characterized by unpredictability and nonlinear development.
  6. Functions of the society:
    – human reproduction and socialization;
    - production material goods and services;
    – distribution of labor products (activities);
    – regulation and management of activities and behavior;
    – spiritual production.

The structure of the socio-economic formation

Productive forces- these are means of production and people with production experience and labor skills.
Relations of production- relationships between people that develop during the production process.
Type add-ons mainly determined by character basis. It also represents the basis of the formation, determining the affiliation of a particular society.
The authors of the approach highlighted five socio-economic formations:

  1. primitive communal;
  2. slaveholding;
  3. feudal;
  4. capitalist;
  5. communist.

Selection criterion socio-economic formations is production activity people, the nature of work and methods of inclusion in the production process(natural necessity, non-economic coercion, economic coercion, labor becomes a personal need).
Driving force for development society is the class struggle. The transition from one socio-economic formation to another is carried out as a result of social revolutions.

Strengths of this approach:

– it is universal: almost all peoples went through the indicated stages in their development (to one degree or another);
– it allows you to compare the levels of development of different peoples in different historical periods;
– it allows you to track social progress.

Weak sides:

– does not take into account the specific conditions and characteristics of individual peoples;
– pays more attention to the economic sphere of society, subordinating all others to it.

Stage-civilizational approach (W. Rostow, Toffler)
This approach is based on an understanding of civilization as a stage in the process of progressive development of humanity, in its ascent along the ladder leading upward to a single world civilization.
Proponents of this approach distinguish three types of civilizations: traditional, industrial, post-industrial (or information society).

Characteristics of the main types of civilizations

Criteria for comparison Traditional (agrarian) society Industrial (Western) society Post-industrial (information) society
Features of the historical process Long, slow evolutionary development, lack of obvious boundaries between eras Sharp, spasmodic, revolutionary development, the boundaries between eras are obvious Evolutionary development society, revolutions only in the scientific and technical sphere, globalization of all spheres of public life
Relations between society and nature Harmonious relationships without destructive effects, the desire to adapt to nature The desire to dominate nature, active transformative activities, the emergence of a global environmental problem Awareness of the essence of the global environmental problem, attempts to solve it, the desire to create the noosphere - the “sphere of the mind”
Features of economic development The leading sector is the agricultural sector, the main means of production is land, it is in communal ownership or incomplete private ownership, since the supreme owner is the ruler Industry predominates; the main means of production is capital, which is privately owned. The service sector and information production predominate, global economic integration, the creation of transnational corporations
Social structure of society Rigid closed caste or class system, low or no level of social mobility Open class social structure, high level of social mobility Open social structure, stratification of society by income level, education, professional characteristics, high level of social mobility
Features of the political system, regulation of social relations The predominance of monarchical forms of government; the main regulators of social relations are customs, traditions, and religious norms The predominance of republican forms of government, the creation of a rule of law, the main regulator of social relations is law
Position of the individual in society The individual is absorbed by the community and the state, the dominance of collectivist values Individualism, personal freedom

Social studies Unified State Exam, lesson 7

Lesson 7. Social progress. Multivariate social development. Global problems

Society is a developing system

Social change- any changes that occur over time in social communities, institutes, organizations.

Social development– social changes directed either towards improvement or towards degradation.

      Social progress– development from lower to higher, from simple to complex, from less perfect to more perfect (from Lat. – movement forward).

      • Progress is relative: there are areas of social life to which this concept is difficult to relate.

        Progress is contradictory: achievements in one area can lead to problems in another.

        Progress criteria:

        • development of productive forces;

          development of science and technology;

          development of the human mind;

          improving people's morality;

          an increase in the degree of freedom that society can provide to a person.

      Social regression– development from higher to lower, degradation, loss of the ability to perform certain functions (from Latin – reverse movement).

      Stagnation– stagnation, temporary stop in development.

Some thinkers talk about cyclicality in the development of society - the theory of historical circulation. Spengler.

Ways of development of society

Evolution(from Latin - “deployment”) - partial, gradual changes that contribute to the emergence of new qualities and properties in various spheres of society.

      They can occur spontaneously or in an organized manner.

      • Reform- any degree of improvement in a certain area of ​​social life that does not affect the fundamental foundations of the social system.

        • Reforms can be progressive or regressive.

Revolution- a radical, qualitative change in all or most aspects of social life, which lead to a change in the basis of the existing social system.

Modernization– updating something; the process of transition from a traditional society to a modern, industrial one.

Multivariate development of society

Classification of types of society (according to various criteria)

      According to the method of transmitting information: preliterate and written societies. The society of screen culture is now developing.

      According to the degree of differentiation of society (degree of social heterogeneity): simple and complex.

      By degree of openness (level of social mobility): closed and open.

      By level of development: developed, developing, backward.

      Formational approach: primitive, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, communist - Marxism.

      According to the level of technical and technological development of society: traditional, industrial, post-industrial.

Traditional (agrarian) society:

      the main factor of production is land;

      the main branch of production (in terms of employment) is agriculture;

      nature of production – manual labor, individual production;

      social structure – class, corporate structure of society predominates, low social mobility;

      impact on nature – local, uncontrolled;

      international connections are insignificant;

      political life - mainly monarchical power, there are no political freedoms, power is above the law;

      spiritual life - traditional religious values, homogeneous culture, few educated people.

Industrial society

      the main factor of production is capital;

      the main branch of production (in terms of employment) is industry;

      nature of production - mechanization, mass standardized production;

      social structure – class division (based on attitudes towards property), simplification of the social structure, its mobility and openness, the idea of ​​individual freedom;

      impact on nature – global, uncontrollable;

      international relations – close relationship;

      political life - proclamation of political freedoms, the rule of law, democratic transformations;

      spiritual life - scientific picture peace, the value of progress and personal success, Mass culture, universal education, training of specialists.

Post-industrial (information) society

      the main factor of production is knowledge, information;

      the main branch of production (in terms of employment) is the service sector;

      the nature of production - automation, computerization of production, a sharp increase in creativity in work;

      social structure – growth in the size of the middle class; social differentiation is based on the level of knowledge, profession, level of qualifications;

      impact on nature – global, controlled;

      international relations – openness of society, globalization;

      political life – political pluralism, development of civil society, “democracy of consensus”;

      spiritual life - the special role of science and education ( continuing education), information revolution, development of individualized consciousness.

Approaches to the study of social development

Linear : the development of society is considered as a process of transition from one stage of development to another, from lower stages to higher ones. General patterns in the development of various societies are identified.

        Technological, stage-based, formational

Nonlinear (local-civilizational) – each civilization is unique, developing along its own, unique path. All civilizations go through stages of origin, development, flourishing and decline.

Staged approach to explain the course of historical development (Rostow): the basis for the unity of the historical development of the world is the level of scientific and technological development and welfare of society.

    traditional society– slowness of development, predominance of the agricultural sector, low level labor productivity

    « transitional society"– transition to capitalist society

    "shift period"– industrial revolutions, the beginning of industrialization

    "period of maturity"– industrialization ends, highly developed countries appear

    "the era of high levels of mass consumption"– the most advanced modern countries

Formational approach

      Proposed by Karl Marx.

      Formation – a historical type of socio-economic development of society based on a certain method of producing material goods.

      • Method of production, economic sphere – basis society; political, social, spiritual sphere – superstructure .

        The base determines the superstructure, but the superstructure can influence the basis.

      He identified 5 formations: primitive communal (primary), slaveholding, feudal, capitalist (combined these three formations into economic), communist.

      • Primitive communal: based on public (community) ownership of the means of production, characterized by social equality, egalitarian distribution.

        Slave-owning: private property or private-state property, the main producers are slaves - the object of property, non-economic coercion to work.

        Feudal: private or private-state ownership, producers - in personal dependence on landowners, non-economic coercion to work.

        Capitalist: private property, market relations, wage labor.

        Communist: public ownership of the means of production, a high level of development of the productive forces, the principle of distribution “From each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs.”

      The change in socio-economic formations occurs due to the discrepancy between production relations and the level of development of productive forces.

Local civilizational approach

      A. Toynbee, O. Spengler, N. Danilevsky, P. Sorokin, L. Gumilev and others.

      Civilization – a stable cultural and historical community of people united by spiritual traditions, similar lifestyles, geographical and historical frameworks.

      The differences between civilizations are based on the uniqueness of spiritual culture, primarily religion.

Globalization

Globalization– the process of integration (cooperation, interaction) of all countries and peoples in different fields of activity; increasing mutual influence and interdependence of countries and peoples.

Causes:

      transition from an industrial society to an information society, development of high technologies;

      decentralization of the economy;

      development of the world economy;

      emergence of new communication technologies.

Manifestations

      activities of TNCs;

      financial markets;

      economic integration within individual regions;

      activities of international economic and financial organizations;

      openness of the world in the sphere of culture, information, personal contacts.

Consequences

      positive:

      • free movement of goods and capital (the ability to sell and produce where it is most profitable);

        reducing production costs, increasing profits;

        the opportunity to benefit from the fruits of scientific and technological progress in countries where there is no opportunity to conduct their own scientific research;

        convergence of interests different states, the desire for mutual consideration of interests in international relations;

        development of sociocultural unity – promotes understanding and rejection of xenophobia.

      negative:

      • the growing gap in the level of development and well-being of the population of developed and developing countries (the problem of the North and the South);

        the desire of highly developed countries for leadership leads to an explosion of nationalism in developing countries;

        obstacles to the development of domestic production;

        loss of the specificity of national cultures;

        imposing a single standard of consumption.

Global problems of our time

Specifics:

      universal: common to all humanity;

      the fate of humanity depends on their decisions;

      can only be resolved through joint efforts;

Causes:

      in the context of globalization, local problems become global;

      the active transformative activity of people is not accompanied by an adequate growth in the environmental consciousness of society and people, and the responsibility of political structures.

Problem groups

      Between communities of people (intersocial):

      • the problem of war prevention;

        North-South problem;

        social contradictions within individual countries.

      Between society and nature:

      • environmental pollution;

        energy, raw materials, food;

        exploration of the World Ocean and space.

      Between man and society:

      • demographic;

        educational;

        the problem of overcoming the negative consequences of scientific and technological revolution;

        human health problem.

Problem resolution areas:

      formation of a new planetary consciousness;

      studying the causes of occurrence and exacerbation;

      joint actions to solve problems.

Resolution prospects:

      environmental pessimism (zero growth concept);

      technological optimism (“the affluent society”).

Social processes V modern Russia

Social processes – social phenomena that change relationships between people or between constituent elements of a community; socially significant changes in society; change in the state of society or its systems.

      change in the nature of social stratification

      a fairly large entrepreneurial layer has developed

      emergence of new prestigious activities

      social polarization

      rapid growth of socio-territorial differences

      marginalization of society

      formation of the middle class

Problem solving

Establish a correspondence between the characteristics and branches of culture: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Find the characteristic features of art in the list below. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) establishing the boundaries of personal freedom

2) building a system of evidence

3) form of knowledge of the world

4) figurative reflection of reality

5) emotional impact

6) logical harmony

Select signs that reflect the specifics of moral regulation of behavior.

1) have a specific character

2) based on the idea of ​​what it should be

3) regulate the most significant areas of public life

4) are general in nature

5) there are special bodies that monitor their implementation

Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, can be used to characterize the concept of “social regression”.

1) movement; 2) change; 3) transition from less perfect to more perfect; 4) successful development; 5) decline; 6) degradation.

Find two terms that “fall out” from the general series and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

In country Z, subsistence farming dominates. What other signs from the above indicate that country Z is developing as a traditional society? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) Oral information prevails over written information.

2) There is a rapid increase in the urban population.

3) Extensive technologies and hand tools predominate.

4) The main social units are the community and the family.

5) Widely distributed scientific knowledge.

6) Infrastructure is intensively developing.

In country Z, computer technology is being widely introduced into various areas of life. What other signs from the above indicate that country Z is developing as a post-industrial society? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) A significant portion of workers are switching to remote work.

2) In order to regulate social relations, legal acts are issued.

3) Extensive farming methods predominate.

4) Natural factors influence the development of society.

5) Information technology is the most important factor of production.

6) Knowledge-intensive, resource-saving industries are receiving the greatest development.

Match between distinctive features and types of societies: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Write down the selected numbers in the table under the corresponding letters.

Practice solving problems in Part 2

Tasks 21–24

Read the text and complete the tasks.

Scientific theory social progress does not need subjective criteria reflecting the inability of thinkers to understand the complex nature of social development, but in an objective criterion, independent of the arbitrariness of researchers.

The difficulty of identifying a criterion for social progress is due, in particular, to the fact that society is complex system, which includes a huge number of elements and processes. These various components also develop, so the concept of progress must also be applied to them. If we consider society as a system, then its various components are subsystems, each of which is capable of progressive development and has its own criterion for development... but none of them can give an idea of ​​​​the progress of society as a whole.

The development of society as a system does not mean that all its subsystems develop equally. The development of various aspects of social life is very often uneven. Moreover, progress in some areas occurs against the backdrop of regression in other areas. For example, this form public consciousness, as an art, does not necessarily reach its peak during a period of rapid development of productive forces...

With all the complexity and internal contradictions of social progress, the question of its criteria not only remains, but, on the contrary, acquires special importance. Moreover, any criterion taken from the field of social consciousness (morality, law, etc.) cannot be the only general historical criterion, since people’s views themselves change under the influence of the conditions of social life... Also, criteria related only to economic categories do not allow us to correctly understand the nature and essence of social progress.

To overcome the one-sidedness of these criteria, one should indicate a fundamental philosophical category that characterizes the deep essence of human life and activity. Such a category, in our opinion, is the category of freedom.

(G.I. Erzin)

21. The author proposes the category of freedom as the main general criterion of social progress. Do you agree with this? Express your opinion and, using the content of the text and social science knowledge, give two arguments to support it.

22. The author writes that any criterion taken from the field of social consciousness cannot be the only general historical criterion. What explains this? Based on social science knowledge, give two of your own examples that illustrate this conclusion.

Task 27

Country Z has a majority working population employed in knowledge-intensive production and the service sector, the share of the middle class is growing, and digital means of communication are developing. Name the type of society that has established itself in country Z. In what direction is the nature of man’s relationship to nature changing in a society of this type? What is the main factor of production in this type of society? How are the requirements for employees changing in society? of this type?

Task 29

Reveal the meaning of the statement in the form of a mini-essay, identifying, if necessary, different aspects of the problem posed by the author (the topic raised). When expressing your thoughts about the problem raised (the designated topic), when arguing your point of view, use the knowledge gained from studying the social studies course, relevant concepts, as well as facts of social life and your own life experience. (Give at least two examples from different sources for factual argumentation.)

“The joint harmonious development of Nature and Society is the central problem modern life. And the development of a joint strategy for humanity, aimed at ensuring this harmony, will occupy the most important place in the collective efforts of all countries of the globe.”

Multivariate social development (types of societies)

I. The nature of social development: reform and revolution, innovation and modernization

1. Reforms, their types and directions.


1.1. Reform (from French reforme, Latin reformare - to transform) is a degree of improvement in any area of ​​public life, carried out simultaneously, through a series of gradual transformations that do not affect the fundamental principles (systems, phenomena, structures)

1.2. Types of reforms :

    Progressive (for example, reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century in Russia - the Great Reforms of Alexander II)

    Regressive (reactionary) (for example, reforms of the second half of the 80s - early 90s of the 19th century in Russia - “Counter-reforms” of Alexander III)

1.3. Directions of reforms

    Social – transformations, changes, reorganization of any aspects of social life that do not destroy the foundations of the social system (these reforms are directly related to people)

    Political – changes in the political sphere of public life (changes in the Constitution, electoral system, expansion of civil rights, etc.)

    Economic - transformations of the economic mechanism: forms, methods, levers and organization of economic management of the country (privatization, bankruptcy law, antimonopoly laws, etc.)

Reforms can take place in all spheres of public life.

The degree of reformist transformations can be very significant, up to changes in the social system or the type of economic system: the reforms of Peter I, reforms in Russia in the early 90s. XX century

2. Revolutions and their types.

2.1. Revolution (from Latin revolutio - turn, revolution) - a radical, qualitative change in all or most aspects of social life, affecting the foundations of the existing social system

2.2. Types of revolutions :

    Long-term (for example, the Neolithic revolution - 3 thousand years, the industrial revolution - XVII-XVIII centuries)

    Short-term (for example, February Revolution 1917 in Russia)


3. Innovation. In modern social science, the emphasis is shifted from the dilemma of “reform or revolution” to “reform - innovation”, whereinnovation – an ordinary, one-time improvement associated with an increase in the adaptive capabilities of a social organism in given conditions.


4. Modernization. In modern sociology, social development is associated with the process of modernization.

Modernization - this is the process of transition from a traditional, agrarian society to modern, industrial societies.

Classic theories of modernization:

    “primary” modernization (development of Western capitalism).

    “secondary” or “catch-up” modernization (carried out in the context of the existence of a “model” of the Western European liberal model; often understood aswesternization , i.e. direct borrowing process). In essence, this modernization is a worldwide process of replacing local, indigenous types of cultures and social organization with “universal” (Western) forms of modernity.

II. Classifications (typologies) of societies

1. Various classifications societies

Classless society:

    primitive society,

    communist society

Class societies:

    slave society,

    feudal Society,

    capitalist society

2. Formational and civilizational approaches

Formational approach (founders K. Marx (1818-1883) and F. Engels (1820-1895). The key concept is “socio-economic formation”.

Socio-economic formation (from Latin formatio - education, type) is a society located at a certain stage of historical development, taken in the unity of all its aspects, with its inherent method of production, economic system and superstructure rising above it

Structure:
Superstructure - is a set of ideological relations, views and institutions (philosophy, religion, morality, state, law, politics, etc.), arising on the basis of a certain economic basis, organically connected with it and actively influencing it

Mode of production
Basis - this is an economic system (a set of production relations, i.e., relations that do not depend on the consciousness of people, into which people enter in the process of material production)

Productive forces - means of production and people with production experience and labor skills
Relations of production – relationships between people that develop during the production process
The type of superstructure is primarily determined by the nature of the base. It also represents the basis of the formation, determining the affiliation of a particular society.

3. Traditional, industrial, information society

Traditional

(pre-industrial)

Industrial

Post-industrial

(informational)

Main factor of production

Earth

Capital

Knowledge

Main product of production

Food

Industrial products

Services

Characteristic features of production

Manual labor

Wide application of mechanisms and technologies

Automation of production, computerization of society

Nature of work

Individual work

Mostly standard activities

A sharp increase in creativity in work

Employment

Agriculture - about 75%

Agriculture - about 10%, industry - 85%

Agriculture - up to 3%, industry - about 33%, services - about 66%

Main type of export

Raw materials

Production products

Services

Social structure

Estates, classes, inclusion of everyone in the team; closedness of social structures; low social mobility

Class division; simplification of social structure; mobility and openness of social structures

Maintaining social differentiation; growth of the middle class; professional differentiation depending on the level of knowledge and qualifications

Lifespan

40-50 years

Over 70 years

Over 70 years

Human impact on nature

Local, uncontrolled

Global, uncontrollable

Global, controlled

Interaction with other countries

Irrelevant

Close relationship

Openness of society

Political life

The predominance of monarchical forms of government; there are no political freedoms; power is above the law, it does not require justification; combination of self-governing communities and traditional empires

Proclamation of political freedoms, equality before the law, democratic transformations; power is not taken for granted; it is required to justify the right to leadership

Political pluralism, strong civil society; the emergence of a new form of democracy - “democracy of consensus”

Spiritual life

Traditional religious values ​​dominate; homogeneous nature of culture; oral transmission of information predominates; a small number of educated people;

New values ​​of progress, personal success, faith in science are affirmed; mass culture emerges and takes a leading position; training of specialists

The special role of science and education; development of individualized consciousness; continuous o