Form of government in India in the 18th century. Required documents and visa for India. Health and medical care

History of state and law Ancient India in legal science is considered in several periods:

1) Ancient period

(IV – first half of the 2nd millennium BC)

2) Vedic period

(second half of the 2nd century BC – mid-1st century BC)

3) Mauryan period

(second half of the 1st century BC – 1st century AD)

Socio-political system. Reasons for the emergence and development of state and law Ancient India have characteristic features as in all states of the Ancient East:

● irrigation production

● farming

● economic needs of society

The structure of ancient Indian society consisted of 4 varnas and was arranged in a hierarchy:

1) brahmins (god-born sons)

2) kshatriyas (warriors)

3) vaishyas (traders, artisans, farmers)

4) Shudras (farmers)

Brahmins had superiority over all lower varnas and were recognized as messengers of God, teaching religion and science.

Kshatriyas were obliged to provide security in the state.

Vaishyas, like the two higher varnas, belonged to the privileged class of ancient Indian society. Their responsibilities included usury, trade, agriculture, study of rituals and rites, and distribution of alms.

Shudras belonged to the lower varna. The primary duty of a sudra was to serve the three varnas (brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas).

Based on the religious ideas of ancient Indian society, varnas originated from the body of the cosmic Giant Purusha:

→ Head – Brahmins

→ Hands – Kshatriyas

→ Hips – Vaishyas

→ Feet – Shudras

Slaves in Ancient India, as in all states of the Ancient East, were not recognized as subjects of law. Prisoners of war, debtors and children born to slaves fell into slavery.

Political system. In terms of the form of government, Ancient India was a unitary state, and in terms of the form of government it was a monarchy. The hierarchy of power was located in the following order:

1) Tsar (power is unlimited, but is subject to responsibility for improper performance of his duties)

2) central authorities authorities

3) prince - head of the province

4) rajuk - head of the region

5) mukhya - head of the city

6) headman - head of the village

The legal status of the monarch in ancient India differed sharply from the status of the ruler Ancient Egypt and Ancient Babylon. The tsar was not deified, bore civil and criminal responsibility to the people and the state, and did not have the right to inflict punishment on privileged social groups.

Right. The main sources of law in Ancient India are the Laws of Manu, compiled by the Brahmins in the 2nd century. BC. – II century AD

The laws of Manu were of a pronounced ideological nature and established unequal conditions for various strata of society.

The legal monument consisted of 12 chapters and 2685 articles and regulated religious, moral and legal relations.

The extensive list of items and types of property in the collection of rules of conduct indicates the development of civil law relations, and the methods of acquiring property are also clearly defined:

→ inheritance

→ conquest

→ purchase

→ receiving as a gift

→ usury

→ for performing a certain amount of work

→ alms

The Laws of Manu stipulate the need for compensation for damage in the event of damage to someone else's property.

Despite the fact that the source of law did not regulate the age of legal capacity, transactions concluded by slaves, children, old people or mentally ill people were declared invalid.

Marriage and family relations were based on the principles of patriarchy and unequal status of family members (gender, age and origin).

Marriage between a higher and lower varna was prohibited.

When considering criminal cases, the king was ordered to take into account the objective and subjective aspects of the offense committed when choosing a punishment.

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2. Political structure of Ancient India

It is characterized by a caste structure of society, which largely persists in our time. Since the basis of the world is Brahman, and the world represents the universal man - Purusha, it turns out that the actual creator of the world is a wise man. The creation of the world is identical to the process of asking questions, the answers to which structure society. From the mouth of Purusha, the varna (social layer, stratum) of brahmanas/sages is created; from the hands of varna kshatriyas - warriors; from the thigh - Vaishya - varna of farmers, artisans, traders; from the legs - varna sudras - slaves. The latter cannot take part in deciding the affairs of the country or state, since they do not have their own thoughts - they are called upon to carry out the decisions of other varnas.

A transition from one varna to another is possible, but for this a person must make significant efforts in acquiring cognitive thinking skills. That is, one must have a strong desire to know the truth, which is revealed through the efforts of thinking, framed according to the eightfold noble path of the Buddha, which opens the path to the happiness of nirvana as a state of non-existence of suffering. The path presupposes right understanding, right motivation, correct speech, right behavior, right way of living, right aspiration, right thinking, right contemplation.

Since this path is difficult, a caste society and a state that preserves it have established themselves. The prospects for equality are related to the extent to which a person is able to develop the main qualities in himself - thinking, faith, perseverance, action, happiness. This is very important for modern student: “Fear ignorance, but fear even more false truths; Don't trust your feelings. Because they will lead you into self-deception... A mind that makes mistakes is even worse for a person. than a malicious and hated enemy, foe.”

2. Political teachings of Antiquity

a) Plato’s teaching (428-348 BC) about the state

He proceeded from the fact that man is a social “animal”. Therefore, I must overcome my impulses biological nature. Without a polis - a community - a person feels incomplete. Hence the desire to create associations in which this incompleteness would not be felt. But objectively, in each polis, two opposing and warring policies are created - one for the poor, the other for the rich. In each of them there is also a division based on different properties.

Polis differ from each other based on their forms of government. These are: a) timocracy or timarchy - the power of a small number of the best, strong in mind and reasonable will; b) oligarchy as the power of several former timocrats who became rich, but at the same time lost interest in a reasonable form of government of the polis; c) democracy - the power of the people as the power of the majority over the minority, the power of the poor over the rich; d) tyranny - the power of one over all, based on cruel coercion to a certain way of life.

These forms of government cyclically replace one another for the reason that gradually the rational-volitional action of timocracy is transformed into a capricious will, subordinated to the attractiveness of property and financial wealth, which outweighs the attractiveness of moral motives and the government becomes oligarchic. Gradually, observing the behavior of the authorities, the people become the same. The more in the eyes of the people profit becomes the purpose of existence, the faster the oligarchy turns into democracy. The main thing in democracy is not that the majority rules, but that immoral motives of behavior rule: “insolence begins to be considered education, willfulness - freedom, licentiousness - pomp and luxury, shamelessness - courage.” Therefore, it is logical that democracy gives rise to a tyrant and a tyrannical form of government, “after all, excessive freedom should naturally lead both the individual and the polis to nothing other than slavery.”

In contrast to this, Plato developed the concept of an ideal state, possible from the standpoint of a mind free from willfulness and self-will. “The wise have a policy if he is kind and virtuous. But good morals/piety/virtue, obviously, is some kind of knowledge, because after all, it is not ignorance, but knowledge that gives good advice.” This determines social structure an ideal state in which the leading role belongs to the sages as the bearers of the philosophical level of knowledge and the corresponding way of life, and not to psychophysiological emotions and instincts. “The union of reason and correct (objective) teaching can be found among a few, the best in nature and the best in education.” Correct thoughts, but received without appropriate upbringing and education - “brutal and slavish thoughts.”

The best way of social structuring of the polis is one in which the position of a person in it is determined by wise men in accordance with the talent inherent in each person. “Doing your own thing and not clinging to much else - this is exactly what justice is.” That is, the structure of an ideal state is as follows: sages, warriors, artisans. If a person independently follows the path of self-knowledge, then he will choose the place that corresponds to his abilities and which the sages would have determined. This means that a person himself is able to form a correct idea of ​​himself on the path of self-knowledge and become a conscious political being. If he does not follow this path, the sages show it to him.

b) The doctrine of politics of Aristotle (384-322 BC)

For the first time, he clearly defined man as a political being, capable, through speech, of coming to an understanding of the differences between good and evil, justice and injustice, and on this basis creating a state as an institution for coordinating and managing the entire diversity of needs and interests that govern people’s lives. The basis is the assertion of law as a measure of justice. Therefore, he believed that the state as a whole is a necessary primary socio-political formation, ahead of the individual and the family. The state is formed as a union of several, but not infinitely large, settlements, otherwise it will be difficult to govern. He who invented the institution of the state rendered the greatest service to humanity.

The state really exists as long as its political structure remains identical to its essence, with which citizens identify their individual consciousness and their own way of life. “Those who intend to embrace the highest positions must possess three qualities: firstly, to sympathize with the existing state structure; then, have the proper ability to perform the duties associated with the position; thirdly, to be distinguished by virtue and justice corresponding to each type political system" People must be similar to each other in understanding the essence of the state, otherwise it will not be strong, strong, and will not create for them the standard of living that they would perceive as the highest good. After all, it is created precisely for this purpose.

The state is the people who inhabit it certain territory and are political, not biological beings. That is, they are citizens. They are those “who take part in court and public assemblies,” that is, in management, with the goal of the general public benefit, which comes not from the position, but from the ability to manage. Only those inclined and capable of a philosophical level of thinking, and not any artisan or anyone else, have the right to govern, since he has an essential dimension of objective reason, identical to the political consciousness of a person in the status of a citizen.

Forms of government were divided into correct and incorrect. The first included the monarchy as royal power, the power of reason; aristocracy - the power of the few with the best intelligence and management abilities; polity is the power of the majority over the minority in the case when the majority has the concept of honor and courage characteristic of warriors as defenders of the state. Since the majority very rarely possess such qualities, correct forms ah government is controlled by a virtuous minority. The second includes deviations from the correct forms: from monarchy - tyranny, from aristocracy - oligarchy, from polity - democracy. Tyranny pursues the interests of one ruler; oligarchy - the benefit of property citizens; democracy – the benefits of poor citizens. But none of them pursues an overall social benefit.

If management is carried out in the interests of the common benefit of all people, then these are the correct forms. With the correct forms, people are citizens; with incorrect forms, they are simply the population. Types of government differ not in whether the majority or minority rules, but in the ratio of poor to rich. The first property is accidental, the second is fundamental. Therefore, the state is created for the sake of general well-being, because only in this case can there be government in the form of polity. If this is achieved, justice will be established in the country, since the overwhelming majority will be equal both at the level of property well-being and at the level of law. In this case, the population will acquire the property of citizens.

The thing that deviates most from the correct forms of government is democracy, in which almost no one pursues the common good, because there are no political virtues. Therefore, such rule can and often does lead to the disappearance of the state altogether. Or it changes radically: the monarch begins to rule again as the bearer of the rational component of the soul, in which the virtue of prudence is born, which produces reasonable ideas, laws and embodies them in public life.

Aristotle understood monarchy primarily as power, the monopoly power of reason, and not the power of an individual. “It is desirable that the law rule, and not any of the citizens. Therefore, the one who demands that the law rule, obviously demands that only the deity and reason rule, and whoever demands that man rule, introduces the bestial/animal principle into this. Because passion is something animal and anger leads rulers astray, even if they are the best people; on the contrary, the law is a mind free from uncontrolled impulses.”

That is why the more people who constitute the supreme power, the greater the likelihood of deviation from the monarchical principle of governance presented by law, the greater the arbitrariness (“and lawlessness”) in the organization of government, especially in one political body different types states that constantly compete with each other, including the “war of all against all.”

Let us note that Aristotle’s political teachings are largely implemented in modern civilized democratic states, the support of which is civil society.

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INDIA, General information, Government and form of government

Area - 3,166,414 km2. Population - 1095.3 million people. Capital -. New Delhi (301 thousand people)

General information

India is located in. Southern part. Asia. Official name-. Republic. India comes from the ancient Persian word Hindu, which in turn is derived from the historical name of the river. Ind. The ancient Greeks called Ali the Indo Indians (people of the Indus). Constitution. India also recognizes the second name -. Bharat, which comes from the Sanskrit name of the ancient Indian king, whose history was described in the Mahabharata. The third name is. Hindustan, used since times. Empire. Great ones. Mughal, but has no official status.

India is the seventh largest country in the world by area and one of the largest states. Asia. Its territory is 3166414 km2. India occupies a peninsula. Hindustan, forming central part. South. Asia. In the north. India borders. Butane. China and. Nepal, in the east - with. Bangladesh and Myanmar (the modern name of Burma), in the north in the west - with. Pakistan. Its territory stretches for 3200 km from the mountain range itself. Himalayas in the north to the cape. Comorin in the south, where the waters meet. Arabian Sea. Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean, from west to east - at 2740 km highest point

Mountain. Nangaparbat (8126 m). India is washed in the east. Bay of Bengal, in the south -. Polk Strait and. Indian Ocean, in the west

Arabian Sea. Part. India are included. Andaman and. Nicobar Islands as well as islands. Lakshadweep. Amindivski and. Minicoy in the south-eastern part. Arabian Sea. The length of the coastline is 6083 km.

Part. India includes part of the territory. Jammu and Kashmir, some parts of the border are disputed. China and. Pakistan. A significant obstacle to the development of cross-border tourism is the presence of a high mountain system. Himalayas, located on the border with. China. Nepal and Butane. B. India has tense political relations with. Pakistan. Off the coast. There is an island in India. Sri Lanka, which is divided with. India university. Polk Strait, the width of which is about 50 km.

Mysterious and amazing India... In its vastness there was one of ancient civilizations, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and Hinduism were born. In this article we will talk about the structure of this country. Let's look at the national-territorial division of India, and also tell about the main attractions and holidays.

Republic of India. Type of government

India has been fighting for its independence for a long time, being In this regard, the question often arises: “Is India a monarchy or a republic?” Conquered in the 18th century, the country gained independence only in 1947. Since then, the state has set a course for democratic development and active development the country as a whole.

India is a republic, a federal state, which is defined by the constitution as a sovereign socialist secular democratic republic. The head of state is the president. India is a parliamentary republic with two houses, represented by the Council of States (upper house) and the House of the People (lower house).

The states and territories represent the national-territorial division of the Republic of India. Thus, there are 29 states in the country, which have their own executive and legislative bodies. The national-territorial division of India also implies the presence of territories. There are a total of 7 territories in the country, which are actually represented by six territories and one metropolitan area of ​​Delhi. They are controlled by the central

Population and language of India

The Republic of India, whose population accounts for one-sixth of the world's population, is one of the most multinational countries. The country is home to about 1.30 billion people, and researchers predict that it will soon overtake China in population.

Hindi is the official language and the most widespread, spoken by more than 40% of the population. Other popular languages ​​are English, Punjabi, Urdu, Gunjarti, Bengali, Telugu, Kannadi, etc. Indian states have their own official languages.

The majority of the population professes Hinduism (almost 80%), followed by Islam in second place, followed by the Christian religion, Sikhism and Buddhism.

India has a high unemployment rate. With more than a billion inhabitants, only 500 million are economically active. About 70% come from agriculture and forestry, and almost half of the people living in cities are employed in the service sector.

Ancient states and society

Proto-states were formed on the territory of India back in the 1st millennium BC, over time transforming into more confident state entities with a monarchical system of government. However, along with the monarchy, various sources often mention the parallel existence of Indian republics.

Republics are sometimes called kshatriya or oligarchic republics. They often fought with monarchies for the supremacy of power. Power in the republics was not hereditary, and elected rulers could be removed in cases of dissatisfaction with their work.

Even then, in the republics there was a social division of society into castes, leaving a deep mark on the history of the state of India (caste divisions still exist in villages). Representatives of the oligarchy, who bore the title “raja,” had the greatest privileges in society. To receive the title it was necessary to undergo a special sacred rite.

It is interesting that the highest caste was originally considered to be the Brahmins - the clergy. In monarchies this custom was preserved. Kshatriyas are warriors, guards, and in all cultures they usually occupied second, if not third place, after high-ranking persons. In the ancient Indian republics, kshatriyas fought with brahmanas for their supremacy, and sometimes forced the brahmanas to obey them.

Indian castes

Modern Indian society still honors long-standing traditions. The social division that emerged in ancient times is still in effect today. obey conditional laws that are prescribed separately for each caste, now they are called varnas.

There are four main varnas in India. The highest level, as in ancient monarchies, is occupied by brahmans. Previously, they were clergy, but now they teach in churches, devote themselves to spiritual development and educate the population. They cannot work or eat food prepared by people belonging to a different caste.

Kshatriyas are one step lower. They usually occupy administrative positions or are involved in military affairs. Women from this caste are prohibited from marrying a man of lower rank. This ban does not apply to men.

Vaishyas have long been farmers and traders. They have changed too much in modern Indian society. Now vaishyas can occupy positions related to finance.

The dirtiest work always remained with the Shudras. As a rule, these were peasants and slaves. They now represent the poorest segment of the population, living in slums.

Another caste is called “untouchables,” which includes all outcasts. They, on the social level, are even lower than the Shudras. The untouchables, already within the caste, are divided into separate groups. For example, there is a group that includes gays, bisexuals, and hermaphrodites. Such people often entertain members of other castes at various festivals.

The only people who do not belong to any caste and are truly considered outcasts are the pariahs - those who are born from people from different castes. They are not allowed to appear in shops or on public transport.

Republic of India attractions

The most famous place is undoubtedly the Taj Mahal - a marble mausoleum that, according to legend, the Indian ruler built in memory of his beloved wife. Snow-white domes, intricate patterns, walls decorated with precious stones and paintings, a park with an amazing columned gallery.

However, this is not all that the Republic of India can boast of. The sights of this country include both various architectural structures and natural beauty. For example, Dudhsagar Falls, which is considered the largest in India. It is located in the foothills of the Western Ghats and is surrounded by unique landscapes.

Indian cities also offer many interesting sites. There is a fortification in Delhi called the Red Fort, built in a special style and which laid the foundation for Mughal architecture.

In Mumbai you can wander around the pavilions of Bollywood - the main platform of the Indian film industry. You can stroll through the streets of the “pink city” in Jaipur. The Maharaja's Palace and Amber Fort are also located here.

In the city of Kolkata, in addition to the famous Kali Temple, there is the largest zoo in India and an Indian museum.

Traces of antiquity

Many objects arose long before the emergence of the modern Republic of India. The world's first stupa is located in Madhya Pradesh. The Sanchi stupa was built in the 3rd century BC, and other stupas were built in its image. The stupa is a monument of early Buddhist architecture; every detail is symbolic. The foundation means the earth and people, and the hemisphere means the gods.

Among the ancient attractions are cave temples in the state of Maharashtra. They were carved over several centuries by Buddhist monks, starting in the 2nd century BC. There are about 30 rock caves in Ellora.

Hampi Temple on site ancient city Vijayanagara is mentioned in the Ramayana, an ancient Indian epic. This place is often called the Abandoned City. The temple is still active today. It is located among high hills consisting of huge boulders. According to legend, the stones were thrown here by the monkey god Hanuman.

The old town of Gokarna consists of only one street, where almost all the houses are wooden. Hindus believe that in this city the god Shiva rose from the depths of the earth after being expelled, which is why it is sacred.

The largest Buddhist community is located in the so-called Little Tibet. There are three Buddhist temples and two monasteries here. Entrance is available to any traveler, so you can see the service with your own eyes. In Little Tibet there is a Tibetan market and a crafts center where you can learn how to make carpets.

Temples and tombs

Some of the most interesting sights of the Republic of India are tombs and temples. Humayun's tomb is not decorated with precious stones, unlike the above-mentioned mausoleum, but it is its prototype. It is located in Delhi and is an example of Mughal architecture.

The tomb of Itemad-ud-Daula is also striking in its beauty. This is a quadrangular building, which is located on a small pedestal. Each corner is decorated with minarets up to 13 meters high. Various images are laid out using semi-precious stones.

The Harmandir Sahib Temple is also not to be missed. It was built back in the 16th century, and is now a place of worship for Sikhs. A narrow path leads directly to the center of the artificial lake, where a dozen buildings are located. The lake is surrounded by a dozen buildings, forming, together with the temple, a rather large architectural complex.

The Virupaksha Temple in southern India dates back to around the 7th century. It is not just one building, but a large temple complex. The tower of the main temple has 9 levels and rises 50 meters up. Nearby there is a sanctuary and a platform with columns. Pilgrims and curious travelers constantly come to this place. It is especially interesting here during various festivals, for example, the Virupaksha and Pampa wedding festival.

City slums

Having visited the Taj Mahal, it is absolutely impossible to say that you have visited India, because this is only one side of the life of this country. The other side is hidden in the slums big cities Republic of India. These areas are intended for the poor and several million people live here.

The Dharavi slum in Bombay was once considered the largest in the world. There are hospitals, schools and residential premises up to 10 square meters in size. m., sometimes housing up to 20 people. The poorest residents live in tents. Hindus are not particularly clean - they throw garbage directly onto the street, near their place of residence. Some, however, try to take care of themselves by washing regularly and even cleaning their homes.

The general appearance of the slums still consists of metal multi-story plywood houses, canvas rags hung in an attempt to create a semblance of housing, and garbage. All activities, from cooking to washing, in the slums are carried out on the streets. The houses are designed for sleeping. The waste is poured into specially equipped ditches with water.

Fans of extraordinary recreation find such areas quite picturesque and colorful. However, in Lately, in slum areas there are active construction works, and maybe soon this highlight will disappear from India.

Holidays and festivals

Due to the multinational nature of the country, many religious holidays are celebrated here, in addition to them there are also holidays of national significance: Republic Day, Independence Day and Gandhi’s Birthday. Republic Day (see below) celebrates the adoption of the country's Constitution on January 26, 1950, signaling final liberation from Britain.

Every year in India they celebrate a holiday dedicated to the Ganges River - Ganga Mahotsava. In November, the city of Varanasi comes alive with people gathering on the banks of the sacred river to swim in it. Locals sing folk songs and dance. The main event is the launching of glowing lanterns along the river. Before this, you need to make a wish, and if the flashlight burns for a long time, then the gods will definitely fulfill your wish.

Diwali is another holiday of the Republic of India. At this time, cities are filled with light, which, according to legend, should defeat evil and failure. Lights, garlands, and candles are lit everywhere, accompanied by noisy songs and festivities.

The real spring holiday - Holi - is celebrated at the beginning of March and lasts five days. At this time, they burn an effigy of Holika, and on the second day they sprinkle colored powder and spices on each other, pour colored water, wishing happiness.

  • Any manipulation of the import and export of local currency is prohibited by law.
  • Despite its large population, India ranks first in the world in the number of abortions.
  • This country is the ancestor of chess, algebra and geometry. The name "chess" previously sounded like "chaturanga" and was translated as four ranks of troops.
  • There are more post offices here than anywhere else in the world. This is surprising because slum dwellers don’t even have addresses.
  • Appearing about 3 thousand years ago, Ayur-Veda is considered the first medical school in the history of mankind.
  • Navigation appeared in India more than 6 thousand years ago.
  • In India, people are “greeted by their clothes” and seen off too. Since it talks about the social stratum to which a person belongs. The fabric, style and even color are important. A woman's hairstyle also matters.
  • There are about 1,500 dialects of different languages ​​in the country.
  • Until about the 1960s, marijuana was legal in India.
  • Once upon a time, Indian light fabrics conquered the Roman emperors. They were even compared to the wind. These were the first cotton fabrics in the world.
  • Freddie Mercury had Indian roots.
  • Before submitting to Britain and becoming its colony, India was one of the richest countries in the world. That is why sailors dreamed of finding sea routes to it.
  • If a Hindu shakes his head in different directions, as if reproaching you, do not worry, because this is a gesture of agreement.
  • Most Indian cafes or restaurants do not have a menu; visitors often order dishes that have long been familiar to them.
  • If there are no seats on the train, people climb onto the shelves intended for luggage.
  • In many states it is common to eat on the floor, not because of poverty, just tradition.
  • Kumbh Mela is a religious festival that is celebrated in India only once every 12 years.
  • It is considered not quite decent to pronounce your husband’s name in public, so various indirect forms of “see”, “look”, etc. are used.

Conclusion

India is a federal republic divided into states and territories. This is an interesting and incomprehensible country in many ways. Tourists visit the richest temples and mausoleums, while the poorest people live in slums and makeshift plywood houses. The rich history is displayed in fairly well-preserved temples dedicated to different religions. Thousands of pilgrims come here to see ancient shrines; travelers hope to touch the past. Every year, fun and colorful holidays and festivals are held here, full of lights, dances and folk music, naturally backed by legends and myths.

India has long been a rich country where Europeans came to buy interesting goods, fragrant spices, colorful fabrics, precious metals and stones. The development of trade routes was facilitated by the unique and convenient location with access directly to the ocean. Lack of a competent government policy to preserve unique natural features and ecosystems has led to environmental disasters.

Geographical characteristics

The Republic of India is located in the southern part of Asia on the Hindustan Peninsula. The territory of the state is 3.3 million km. The country ranks seventh in area in the world.

India's neighbors are: Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Afghanistan. The country's maritime borders are adjacent to the Maldives, Sri Lanka and Indonesia. The country is densely populated. The total population exceeds 1 billion 300 million people.

Nature

Mountains and plains

The country's topography is represented by high mountain ranges, plateaus and a large plain. The main and only mountain ranges of India are the Himalayas, which stretch along the borders of Nepal, Afghanistan and China.

The ranges within India's borders are still high mountains, but their structural complexity differs from the main ranges located in other countries. The highest point in India is Mount Kanchenjungu with a height above 8.5 thousand meters.

The flat part of the country stretches parallel to the Himalaya ridges. It is absolutely flat and its length is 2,400 km. The remaining territory of the state is fragmented plateaus...

Rivers and lakes

The rivers of India play a large role in the country and are the main source of water and means of irrigating fields and lands. At the same time, they are the cause of natural disasters and catastrophes. The most famous rivers of India: Ganges and Brahmaputra. In general, more than a dozen rivers flow through the country. large rivers. For some, the main source of water is rain. Recharge and the risk of flooding in their valleys occurs during the monsoon.

For other rivers, including large ones, the source of water is the glaciers of the Himalayas. The main periods of their overflow and release from the naturally low banks are the hot summer months. Many rivers in India flow into the Bay of Bengal.

There are practically no lakes in the country. Only small ones are available. They are concentrated mainly in the Himalayas. Among the large reservoirs of this type, only Lake Sambhar can be noted, which is used by the population for boiling down salt...

Seas surrounding India

The extremely advantageous location of the state, which has access to the ocean, several centuries ago determined the economic prosperity of the country. This location still matters today.

The coasts of India are washed by the waters of the ocean of the same name and the seas that make up its basin. These are the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal and its waters of the northern Indian Ocean. The length of the state's coastline is 7.5 thousand km.

Plants and animals of India

India is one of the few countries that can boast of a variety of animal species and flora. There are endemics here. There are about a third of them. On the territory of the state you can find coconut palm, sandalwood, bamboo, banyan, etc. There are pine evergreen forests, monsoon forests, as well as mountain meadows.

In terms of animal diversity, the country has begun to lose ground over the past few decades. But here you can still find the Indian rhinoceros, Asiatic lion, Himalayan bear, and also leopard...

Climate of India

The climate of India is determined by the presence of the Himalayas and the Thar Desert. Mountains are a natural obstacle to cold air flows from outside Central Asia. It is for this reason that the air temperature in the country differs from the climate of states located in a similar zone.

In summer, monsoon winds with significant precipitation are attracted by the desert. It rains actively from mid-summer to mid-autumn. The country has the rainiest place on earth - the city of Cherrapunji, where the annual rainfall is 12,000 mm...

Resources

Natural Resources of India

India's natural resources are represented by large deposits of minerals, the list of which includes: manganese ores, iron ores, aluminum, precious stones and metals.

Forests occupy approximately a quarter of the country's territory and are a source of timber and feed for livestock, but do not fully meet the state's needs. The problem is deforestation in the Himalayas.

The lands in the country are infertile. They require a well-thought-out system of irrigation, processing and fertilization. Because of this, there are few clean pastures in the country and not enough fodder plants for animals.

Wind energy is actively used in India. The country ranks fifth in the world in terms of this method of energy generation...

Industry and Agriculture of India

The leader of the industrial sector in India is mechanical engineering. Mostly local businesses engaged in the production of parts and components for cars.

In the list of the main types of industry of the state, it is worth noting ferrous metallurgy and the production of coal. The textile industry is actively developing in the country, with significant investments being made in it.

Agriculture is represented by the production of wheat and rice...

Culture

Peoples of India

India is especially interesting for the mentality of its population. For a long time there was an unusual social order, in which there were different classes, the so-called castes. Residents classified them by profession, income level, place of residence or birth. According to traditions, representatives of different castes were not allowed to marry. Today, at the official level, all this has been canceled, but in practice there are representatives of orthodox views who adhere to the same principles...

- a state in southern Asia, which stretches from the peaks of the Karakoram in the north to Cape Kumari in the south, from the deserts of Rajasthan in the west to Bengal in the east. In the south, east and west, the country is washed by the Arabian, Laccadive and Bengal seas and the Bay of Bengal of the Indian Ocean. India borders on Pakistan in the west and northwest, in the north the Himalayas separate the state from China and Bhutan, in the northeast from Nepal and in the east from Bangladesh.

The name of the country comes from the name of the Indus River, in Hindi and Urdu "Sindh" means "river".

General information about India

Official name: Republic of India

Capital: Delhi

The area of ​​the land: 3.3 million sq. km

Total Population: 1.2 billion people

Administrative division: A federal republic consisting of 25 states and 7 union territories under central jurisdiction.

Form of government: A republic with a federal government structure.

Head of State: President, elected for a term of 5 years.

Population composition: 72% are Indo-Aryans, 25% are Dravidians, 3% are Mongoloids.

Official language: English and Hindi and 17 regional languages ​​across different states. Among other languages, the most common ones are Bengali, Telugu, Tamil and some others.

Religion: 83% of the country's residents profess Hinduism, the rest - Islam, Christianity, and Sikhism.

Internet domain: .in

Mains voltage: ~230 V, 50 Hz

Country dialing code: +91

Country barcode: 890

Climate

In India, which occupies a large area and is characterized by significant vertical differentiation of relief and varying distances from the ocean, contrasts in the distribution of heat and moisture are pronounced. In general, the climate of the country is greatly influenced by monsoons. The altitude factor predetermined the cold climate of the high mountains in northern India, while a temperate climate prevails on the low slopes of these mountains and on the plateau.

The resorts of Northern India are located in the altitude zone from 1500 to 2300 m. For example, in Darjeeling and Srinagar, the climatic conditions are comfortable throughout the year. Average monthly temperatures in Darjeeling range from 4°C in winter to 17°C in mid-summer, when moderately warm weather prevails.

In many areas of Hindustan, the average air temperature in the coldest month - January - is 18–24 ° C, and in the summer months - 24–29 ° C. However, the daytime temperature often rises to 32 ° C. In the northern plains, from West Bengal to the border with Pakistan, Summers are very hot, with average temperatures in Bengal reaching 29°C; they gradually increase as they move to the northwest and in May in Delhi reach 33° C. The average summer temperature in Amritsar (Punjab) is 34° C, in the Thar Desert (Rajasthan) - 32°–38° C, average winter temperatures there are 7–16° C.

Annual rainfall ranges from less than 100 mm in the Thar Desert to 10,770 mm at Cherrapunji station in the Khasi Mountains, one of the wettest places on Earth. For Western India, the average annual precipitation is as follows: Punjab 400–500 mm, Thar Desert 50–130 mm, Saurashtra (Kathiyawar Peninsula) 650–1000 mm, western coast of Hindustan more than 2000 mm and eastern coast at the foot of the Eastern Ghats 1300–2050 mm. Central India receives an average of 650–1300 mm of rainfall per year. In the northeast of peninsular India and in the lowland north of the country, 1300–2050 mm falls, and in the eastern Himalayas and most parts of Bengal and Assam - more than 2000 mm.

Geography

India is located in southern Asia on the Hindustan Peninsula between the headwaters of the Indus river system in Punjab in the west and the Ganges river system in the East. In the north, the country borders with China, Bhutan and Nepal, in the northwest - with Pakistan, in the east - with Myanmar and the People's Republic of Bangladesh. In the east, India is washed by the Bay of Bengal, in the west by the Arabian Sea, and in the south by the Indian Ocean.

The length of India from north to south is about 3220 km, and from east to west it is 2930 km. India's land border is 15,200 km and its sea border is 6,083 km. Its area is 3287.3 thousand sq. km.

The natural conditions of India are very diverse. In general, 3 districts can be distinguished on its territory.

1) The Himalayas, located in northern India. Translated, the name Himalayas means “abode of snow.” The highest peak in the world is located here - Mount Chomolungma (Everest), which rises 8848 m above sea level. But its neighbors are not inferior to its older sister; a height of 5 - 6 thousand m is quite common in these areas. The Himalayas stretch from east to west (from the Brahmaputra River to the Indus River) for 2500 km with a width of 150 to 400 km. The Himalayas consist of three main mountain ranges: the Siwalik Mountains in the south (altitudes 800-1200 m), then the Lesser Himalayas (2500-3000 m) and the Greater Himalayas (5500-6000 m).

2) The Deccan Plateau on the Hindustan Peninsula with the adjacent coastal lowlands. The average height is 300 - 900 m. The Deccan is an arid hilly plateau, bounded on the west and east by the Western (higher) and Eastern Ghats mountains. The Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri rivers flow through the Deccan plateau in the direction from West to East, which become very shallow in winter. It's interesting that, according to modern ideas, the Deccan Plateau was formed tens of millions of years ago as a result of “swelling” earth's surface from an asteroid impact opposite side the globe in the Gulf of Mexico region (it was this catastrophe that was probably the cause of the extinction of the dinosaurs).

3) The Indo-Gangetic Plain, which occupies the central and eastern part of India, its area is 319 thousand sq. km. Up to 250 million people live on the territory of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. This vast area extends parallel to the Himalayan ranges.

The main rivers in India are the Ganges (2510 km), Brahmaputra (2900 km), Indus (2879 km). They have a lot of water and are used for navigation. A characteristic phenomenon for northern territories countries are subject to floods during the melting of glaciers.

Flora and fauna

Vegetable world

The territory of India extends almost 30° from north to south and covers an altitudinal range of approx. 9100 m, in addition, within its boundaries, the average annual precipitation in different areas ranges from less than 100 to more than 10,000 mm. It is therefore not surprising that the country's vegetation is very diverse.

The flora of India has more than 20 thousand species, many endemics. The forests of India are divided into two groups - tropical forests within Hindustan and temperate forests covering the slopes of the Himalayas at altitudes of more than 1500 m above sea level.

Animal world

The modern wild fauna of India includes about 350 species of mammals, more than 1,200 species and subspecies of birds and over 20 thousand species of insects. In recent decades, the numbers of many animal species, especially large ones, have declined greatly. Of the large predators, the Asiatic lion survived only in national park The Gir Forest on the Kathiyawar Peninsula (Gujarat), tigers and leopards are found in the jungles of the Terai, in the Assam-Burma border zone and in the north of Hindustan. Hyenas, cheetahs and jackals are numerous in the northern part of the country.

Wild herbivores include the Indian one-horned rhinoceros, the largest Asian rhinoceros, which is found in several national parks and reserves of Assam and West Bengal, and even in these remote areas its numbers continue to decline. In India, in particular in the state of Assam, there are several species of deer: sambar (with horns up to 100 cm long), axis, or chital, swamp deer, barasinga (its antlers have more than 14 branches), muntjac.

The fauna of the Himalayas is the most diverse. U upper limit mountain forests are inhabited by musk deer. The Dachigam National Park (Jammu and Kashmir) is home to the Himalayan black bear, hangul (Kashmiri red deer), and leopard. The Malayan bear is found in the mountains in the northeast of the country (the states of Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya and Nagaland). In the highlands of the Himalayas, yaks and kulans are most adapted to harsh conditions; snow leopards are occasionally found.

The smallest of the mountain sheep - Shapu, lives above the forest line on the steep, grassy slopes of Ladakh, the largest of the mountain sheep - Nayan, found from northern Ladakh in the west to northern Sikkim in the east, and rare ones - Marco Polo sheep and kuku -yaman, or blue goat. The Alpine, or mountain, goat is common in the western Himalayas - in Kashmir and Ladakh. The mountains are also inhabited by markhor (or markhor), tahr, chiru (or orongo), dzeren, takin, and goral.

Among the smaller mammals, monkeys stand out.

The forests of Assam are home to the only representative of great apes in India - the hoolock gibbon, or white-browed gibbon. The most widespread monkey is the langur, or tonkotel. Monkeys and most other small animals, especially rodents, cause significant damage agriculture. The exception is mongooses, which control the number of snake populations, which are very numerous in India.

The savannas of the Deccan Plateau are home to gazelles, four-horned antelopes, hares, small rodents, Bengal cats, common foxes, mongooses, hyenas, wolves, jackals, and leopards. The tropical rainforests of the Deccan are characterized by deer (sambars, axises, muntjacs), gaur bulls, loris prosimians (south of the Godwari River), tigers, red wolves, and in the most humid habitats - swamp deer, wild buffaloes and elephants. In the narrow, forested gorges of the spurs of the Western Ghats, elephants, gaurs and endemics such as the Nilgiri langur monkey, silene macaque, brown mongoose, and Malabar civet are found. In the jungles of the Deccan there are tigers and sloth bears, hyenas, and jackals. Among the small animals of the Deccan, notable are the squirrels - the striped or palm tree and the giant Malabar, and among the rodents - the dormouse and the musk shrew.

The avifauna is very rich, many species of birds are famous for their colorful plumage (Rose-winged Cramer's Parrots, Red-headed Weavers, Black Drongos, Kingfishers, Fruit Pigeons, Black-and-Red Larva-eaters, Rose-cheeked Bulbuls, Golden-fronted Leaflets). The species diversity and numbers of crane-like birds (rare black-necked crane, Indian crane Antigonus, Egyptian heron, etc.), stork-like birds (Indian marabou, etc.), parrots, honeycreepers, ravens, waterfowl (pelicans, teal, ducks) are striking.

Bank roosters are the ancestors of domestic chickens, and wild peacocks, often found in Central India, are mainly descendants of birds bred in the gardens of the Mughal rulers. The Indian starling, or mynah, has spread to many tropical regions. There are vultures, kites and crows. In winter, the number of birds almost doubles - birds fly from Europe and Northern Asia for the winter.

India has a diverse fauna of reptiles. There are cobras, including the largest poisonous snake in India - the king cobra, pythons and many other snakes (ribbon krait, or bungar, coral snakes, Russell's viper, rattlesnake, or pit viper, shield-tailed snakes, blind snakes, egg snakes, approx. . 25 species of snakes), geckos, chameleons, and in the estuaries of the Bay of Bengal - crocodiles. The waters of the Ganges and Brahmaputra are home to the freshwater, or Gangetic, susuk dolphin, ranging from 1.8 m to 2.5 m long, and the Gangetic gharial crocodile, up to 6.6 m long.

Among insects, centipedes and scorpions are numerous, but the main damage is caused by small insects, primarily termites.

Attractions

The country is one of the oldest civilizations in the world, the richest natural conditions and warm climate, India simply cannot help but attract the attention of millions of tourists. The majestic Himalayas and mysterious Tibet, the sacred Ganges River and the tropical forests of the Western Ghats, dozens of seaside resorts and the “golden triangle”, numerous monuments of past centuries and a huge number of museums, all this constitutes the national pride of this country.

On weekdays, banks are open from 10.00 to 14.00, on Saturdays - from 10.00 to 12.00. There are branches that are open in the evenings or on Sundays. All banks are closed during public holidays, as well as on June 30 and December 31.

In large cities you can use a credit card. The most common are Master Card, Visa International and American Express.

Useful information for tourists

India attracts tourists with its exoticism and cheapness. Animals walk peacefully on the streets, in gardens, parks and on the roads of any city in the country, ignoring motorists.

The abundance of shops, stalls and benches makes a stunning impression on tourists. You can buy almost everything here. In India it is common to bargain, but not in the same way as in Arab countries. Here they seek a discount on goods according to the so-called Dutch scheme: the price named by the merchant gradually decreases with the utterance of the magic word “expensive”. During the bidding process great importance intonation and gestures play a role. If a Hindu agrees, he shakes his head from side to side, if not, he nods from top to bottom. Paper money - rupees - can be dirty and worn. If the bill has holes, it will be accepted for payment, but if the corners are torn off or the edges are torn, it must be replaced.

Any establishment where you can eat is called a restaurant. After the meal, the waiter brings the bill and places it face down. It is customary to pay for it with a large bill, exceeding the cost of lunch. It is customary to tip 10% of the total bill. Food in India is incredibly cheap. Hinduism prohibits the consumption of alcoholic beverages, so the restaurant does not serve them, but some establishments allow you to bring your own. On Fridays in India, prohibition is observed, and alcohol cannot be obtained at any price.

Handshakes are not accepted in India. Instead, Hindus use a traditional gesture: they raise their joined palms to their chin, as if for prayer, and shake their heads with the words: “Namaste.” In this way, local residents greet not only each other, but also their guests.

Average life expectancy in India: The average life expectancy in India is 63.62 years (see Ranking of countries in the world by average life expectancy). Capital of India: New Delhi (Delhi). Big cities India: New Delhi (Delhi), Kolkata (more than 16 million inhabitants), Mumbai (Bombay) (more than 15 million inhabitants), Chennai (Madras) (6 million inhabitants), Hyderabad (5 million inhabitants), Bangalore (4.5 million inhabitants), Ahmedabad (4 million inhabitants). Official language of India: Hindi, English. More than 30 different languages ​​and 2,000 dialects are spoken in India. The Constitution of India stipulates that Hindi and English are the two languages ​​of the national government, i.e. official languages. In addition, there is an official list of 22 languages ​​(scheduled languages) that can be used by Indian state governments for various administrative purposes.

India

If a Hindu agrees, he shakes his head from side to side, if not, he nods from top to bottom. Paper money - rupees - can be dirty and worn. If the bill has holes, it will be accepted for payment, but if the corners are torn off or the edges are torn, it must be replaced.


Any establishment where you can eat is called a restaurant. After the meal, the waiter brings the bill and places it face down. It is customary to pay for it with a large bill, exceeding the cost of lunch.

It is customary to tip 10% of the total bill. Food in India is incredibly cheap. Hinduism prohibits the consumption of alcoholic beverages, so the restaurant does not serve them, but some establishments allow you to bring your own. On Fridays in India, prohibition is observed, and alcohol cannot be obtained at any price.


Handshakes are not accepted in India.

Geography of India

The Himalayas stretch from east to west (from the Brahmaputra River to the Indus River) for 2500 km with a width of 150 to 400 km. The Himalayas consist of three main mountain ranges: the Siwalik Mountains in the south (altitudes 800-1200 m), then the Lesser Himalayas (2500-3000 m) and the Greater Himalayas (5500-6000 m). 2) The Deccan Plateau on the Hindustan Peninsula with the adjacent coastal lowlands. The average height is 300 - 900 m. The Deccan is an arid hilly plateau, bounded on the west and east by the Western (higher) and Eastern Ghats mountains.
The Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri rivers flow through the Deccan plateau in the direction from West to East, which become very shallow in winter.

Info

Of course, the winter resorts of India cannot compare with the ski slopes of Austria, Italy and Switzerland. However, for those travelers who love skiing and who at the same time want to get to know the unique India, a holiday at Indian ski resorts will be remembered forever. The most popular ski resorts in India are Auli, Dayara Bugayal, Mundali, Munsiari, Solang, Narkanda, Kufri, and Gulmarg.


By the way, the skiing season in India lasts from mid-December to mid-May. Many foreign tourists come to India to relax at spa resorts. Indian spa centers offer various Ayurvedic programs to clients. Among such spa resorts we should first of all name Beach & Lake, Ayurma, and Ananda. Before you go to India, think about what you want to buy there.
Goa
  • Gujarat
  • Jammu and Kashmir
  • Jharkhand
  • West Bengal
  • Karnataka
  • Kerala
  • Madhya Pradesh
  • Manipur
  • Maharashtra
  • Meghalaya
  • Mizoram
  • Nagaland
  • Orissa
  • Punjab
  • Rajasthan
  • Sikkim
  • Tamil Nadu
  • Tripura
  • Uttaranchal
  • Uttar Pradesh
  • Haryana
  • Himachal Pradesh
  • Chhattisgarh

Union Territories of India:

  • Andaman and Nicobar Islands
  • Dadra and Nagar Haveli
  • Daman and Diu
  • Lakshadweep
  • National Capital Territory of Delhi
  • Pondicherry
  • Chandigarh

Government of India: The executive power in India is exercised by the President, Vice-President and the government headed by the Prime Minister.

Indian government and political system

Attention

In 2500-1900 BC. In Western India, the first urban culture existed, which formed around the cities of Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, and Dhalavira. In 2000-500 BC. Hinduism spreads in India, and during the same period a caste system begins to take shape there, consisting of priests, warriors, and free peasants. Subsequently, castes of merchants and servants were formed. Around the 5th century BC.


In India there were already 16 independent states - Mahajanapadas. At the same time, two religions were formed - Buddhism, founded by Siddhartha Gautama Buddha, and Jainism, founded by Mahavira. In the 6th century BC. some territories of India were conquered by the Persians, and in the 4th century the troops of Alexander the Great conquered some of the northwestern parts of this country. In the 2nd century BC. The Mauryan kingdom reaches its peak, having conquered several neighboring Indian states.

In September-October 1999, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA), led by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), won such a victory. Its leader A.B. Vajpayee became prime minister. Elections to the People's House of Parliament and state legislative assemblies are held every 5 years on the basis of universal suffrage for persons over 18 years of age. Elections are direct. To carry them out, the country's territory is divided into territorial electoral districts.

Elections are monitored by an election commission headed by a chief commissioner. The State Council and State Legislative Council are renewed by 1/3 every 2 years. State representatives are elected by elected members of state legislatures under a system of proportional representation based on a single transferable vote.

India form of government

India is a sovereign, democratic, federal state with a republican form of government. The words "socialist and secular" were added in August 1976 after the 42nd Amendment to the Constitution was passed by Parliament. India includes 28 states - Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland , Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamilnadu, Tripura, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, as well as the National Capital Territory of Delhi and 6 union territories - Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu, Lakshadweep, Pondicherry, Chandigarh.

India is a federal state established as a Union of States. There is a British-style parliamentary form of government.

Ancient Indian form of government

Patil (since July 25, 2007). The official languages ​​are Hindi and English. Administratively, the republic is divided into 27 equal states and 7 union territories. The administrative division of the country takes into account the ethnicity of the people: states are created according to Khoi ethnicity, local languages they are also official. Each state is governed by a governor who is appointed by the president. USA. India:. Andhra Pradesh;. Arunachal Pradesh;. Assam;. Bihar;. Goa;. Gujarat;. Jharkhand;. Jammu and Kashmir;. Western. Bengal;. Karnataka;. Kerala;. Madhya Pradesh;. Manipur;. Maharashtra;. Meghalaya;. Mizoram;. Nagaland;. Punjab;. Rajasthan;. Sikkim;. Tamil Nadu;. Tripura;.
Uttaranchal;. Uttarakhand;. Orissa;. Chhattisgarh;. UTT ar Pradesh;. Haryana;. Himachal Pradesh. Union Territories (small administrative units that are governed by the central government):.
To the south of the plains, the landscape rises into the Deccan Plateau, which has a triangle shape and whose altitude ranges from 300 to 900 meters above sea level. The plateau is bounded by the Eastern and Western Ghats, hills that run parallel along the eastern and western coasts of Hindustan and separate the fertile coastal regions from the interior lands. Rivers of India: Brahmaputra, Ganges, Godavari, Indus, Krishna (river), Sabarmati.
Administrative and territorial division of India: India consists of twenty-eight states (which, in turn, are divided into districts), six union territories and the National Capital Region of Delhi. Each state has its own elected government, while union territories are governed by an administrator appointed by the union government. However, some union territories have their own elected governments.
The majestic Himalayas and mysterious Tibet, the sacred Ganges River and the tropical forests of the Western Ghats, dozens of seaside resorts and the “golden triangle”, numerous monuments of past centuries and a huge number of museums, all this constitutes the national pride of this country. Northern India is the center of unique natural and historical monuments. Banks and Currency The currency in India is the rupee INR (1 rupee = 100 paise). The import and export of national currency is prohibited. It is best to take money with you in American dollars, then you can easily exchange them for rupees at a bank or hotel exchange office. When exchanging, you should keep the receipt, as it will be required when exchanging rupees for dollars. On weekdays, banks are open from 10.00 to 14.00, on Saturdays - from 10.00 to 12.00. There are branches that are open in the evenings or on Sundays.