Pre-revolutionary emigration. Waves of Russian emigration: from Ivan the Terrible to the present day. Emigration from the USSR

Emigration is always a difficult life step associated with very serious changes in life. Even moving to a neighboring country with a similar mentality and language, immigrants inevitably face a number of difficulties. Of course, this is not in vain. In most cases, emigration gives you the opportunity to seriously improve the quality of your life, achieve your desired goals, fulfill your dreams, and sometimes just escape from some imminent danger in your homeland. Or simply provide yourself and your children a more peaceful and rich future.

The advantages of emigration: why go abroad

Evaluation of a new life always follows from the values \u200b\u200bof a particular person. Consider the vital parameters that moving can improve.

Firstly, it is climate and ecology. If you are not lucky to be born in the Far North, in Siberia, or in a very rainy region, it is natural that one day you may want to move to a warm country, perhaps the sea or the ocean. It is no coincidence that many residents of the northern regions of Russia, leaving early retirement, buy a house in the Krasnodar Territory, Crimea, Bulgaria, Montenegro or Turkey. Immediately, environmental issues should also be noted. It is difficult to hope for good health if you live in an industrial city with a huge number of gas emissions into the atmosphere and liquid waste into rivers. Many residents of Norilsk, Nizhny Tagil or Karabash better than many will explain how often they get sick or are allergic. And the life expectancy in these places speaks for itself. Like a high proportion of cancer, pneumonia and asthma.

Secondly, it is an opportunity to dramatically increase the standard of living. If in Russia, doctors and nurses earn very modest money, then in many countries, such as the USA, Canada, Germany, Israel, this is one of the highest paid professions. You can do what you love, and at the same time be able to buy a very nice house, a couple of premium cars, pay for your children’s education and fly on vacation to any place on Earth. Now compare this picture with any doctor in the Russian district clinic.

But even if you take professions that do not require a long vocational education, it is safe to say that any electrician or plumber will easily feed his family with children in the United States. Without qualifications, you can always go to truckers, and in the same way you can buy a house, a personal car, and other benefits.

Thirdly, security. Say what you like, but most regions of Russia, by world standards, are a very dangerous place in terms of crime and the risks of being beaten or killed, simply because someone did not like your face, or did not have enough to buy a drink. Just think it over. The crime rate in Canada is at least 10 times less than in Russia. Moreover, if something happens there, then most often it is theft or theft of cars, which does not threaten your health. Moreover, all any large things and property there are insured. There are regions in Canada where no one is killed at all in a year. And the most serious crimes there are committed on or near Indian reservations, and they almost never hurt ordinary Canadians.

Fourth, education and perspectives for your children. Your children will be able to grow up in a calm and prosperous environment and gain relevant knowledge in any profession that they choose. By the way, it is immigrant children who are considered the most successful people among all categories of the population in developed countries. They have a drive and a desire to take a high place in society, which almost invariably leads them to success, and sometimes to great wealth.

Fifth, you can be sure that your property will always be your property, and it will not be taken away from you by the next reforms or redistribution of property. In Russia and in the territory of the former USSR several times, during the 20th century, money, savings and family capital simply burned out. You can live in abundance and at the end of your life pass the accumulated to your children, who do not have to start from scratch.

Sixth, you will have more opportunities for relaxation and travel. If you settle in one of the countries of Europe - you can go around most of the European countries by car. If you settle in the USA or Canada, you will have access to all the resorts of the Caribbean, which, in comparison with your new salary, will cost just ridiculous money. The Dominican Republic is an analogue of Turkey in the New World. Cheap, great hotels, beaches and fun.

Cons of emigration: things to remember

Let's be honest and talk about the downsides and difficulties that most immigrants go through.

Firstly, it will take you several years to fully integrate into society. The first months are almost always euphoric: a dream come true, a new place of residence seems to be an exceptionally wonderful place, people, on average, are kinder and more affable. But, starting from 3-6 months, almost everyone begins the depressive phase associated with the restructuring of the personality and adaptation to new cultural norms, habits, ways of communication. People and events around are starting to annoy. Cons and flaws are very striking. Longing for homeland, friends and acquaintances begins. Sometimes it's hard to worry, but it goes away. After that, a new, calm and joyful life begins.

Secondly, this is a decrease in social status and the need to start from scratch. With the exception of people who are transferred within large international companies, as well as employees of the IT sector, many have to start with simple jobs. Work in a fast food cafe, at a construction site, by drivers and couriers, or at starting office positions, such as receiving calls or meeting guests. Some people are very difficult to endure this stage. Their thoughts begin to spin: I was a great boss or doctor of sciences. Why don't they value me here?

But, let's not forget that here you are just one of many foreigners who need to prove their ability to solve problems, get along in a team. After the first chance work, 90% of people are already getting settled, receive letters of recommendation and begin to make a full-fledged career. On average, your backlog will be 3-4 years. After this period, almost everyone makes up for their former position in society.

Thirdly, the need to apply a large amount of effort. You need to learn a lot of foreign languages, local traditions, communication methods, laws and regulations traffic, ways to seek medical help and many other things. In another country, everything can be arranged quite differently from what you have in your homeland. Constant smiles and the need to maintain fleeting conversations are difficult for some people - small talk.

Fourth, the need to make new acquaintances and friends. Yes, your friends and relatives will most likely not go with you. Many social ties will completely die out over time, your common interests and subjects for conversation will disappear. Someone is able to find a circle of contacts in immigrant circles and local diasporas. Someone makes friends in sports and dance sections, interest clubs or just among neighbors. Man is a social animal, and even the most unsociable introvert will need at least 2-3 friends.

Instead of unambiguous conclusions

The main thing in the process of immigration is honesty with oneself, an honest evaluation   pros and cons, your needs and what you are willing to pay for the opportunity to start a new life. All the difficulties before you were overcome by millions of people. And millions of people will do it after you. Carefully weigh the pros and cons and act decisively. Everything will work out. In addition, there may be several attempts to move. One failure is never the end, and never the final sentence.

Migration and emigration in the pre-revolutionary period in Russia

The history of international (interstate) migration and emigration of Russian citizens dates back several centuries, if we take into account the forced flight of political figures abroad during the Middle Ages. For example: salvation from the persecution of the Orthodox Church and Moscow’s princely power in Lithuania and “among the Germans” at the beginning of the 16th century. Novgorod-Moscow heretics, as well as the transition in 1564 to the side of the Poles, Prince Andrei Kurbsky. His step was dictated by fears for his life related to the conflict between the prince and Ivan the Terrible on the basis of choosing the main paths of political development of Russia. Kurbsky’s political concept consisted in developing the principles of combining the power of the monarch, institutions of the command apparatus and further development of estate-representative bodies, both in the center and in the localities. The point of view advocated by Ivan the Terrible consisted in affirming the principle of unlimited monarchy, "autocracy", with the parallel establishment of a tough, power regime. Subsequent developments showed that the point of view of Ivan IV prevailed.

In the “Petrine” era, religious ones were added to the political motives for leaving abroad. The process of economic migration, which is so characteristic of the countries of Central and Western Europe, practically did not affect Russia until the second half of the 19th century, although there are references to Russian immigrants of the 16th - 18th centuries. to America, China and Africa. However, these migrations were insignificant in number and were associated with the “call of the distant seas” or the search for happiness. At the end of the XVIII century. Russian settlers also appeared in European countries: in France (1774), Germany (in the cities of Halle, Marburg, Jena, etc.), where since the middle of the 15th - 2nd centuries. Russian noble youth began to study.
  The main center of Russian political emigration of the second quarter of the XIX century. was Paris, and after the revolution of 1848 it became London, where the “first free Russian printing house” appeared, founded by A. I. Herzen, thanks to which Russian emigration became a significant factor in the political life of Russia. A characteristic feature of the "noble emigration" from Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century, which left quite legally, was a relatively high standard of living.
  In the second half of the 19th century, after the Polish uprising of 1863 - 1864. a number of political "criminals" fled from Russia, who settled mainly in London, Bern, Heidelberg, Tulz, Geneva, Berlin. This new emigration has expanded the social composition of Russian political emigration. Petty bourgeoisie, commoners, and intelligentsia were added to the nobility.
  A special stream of Russian political emigration that arose after the assassination of Alexander II and the internal political crisis of the 80s of the XIX century covered almost a quarter of a century. The appearance of one of the first political organizations in exile - the Marxist Union of Russian Social Democrats Abroad — dates back to this time.
Speaking of Russians who were abroad in the last quarter of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, the economic “settlers” should be mentioned first. The reason for their departure was higher wages abroad. Until the beginning of the 80s, the number of people who left Russia for economic reasons did not exceed 10 thousand people, later it began to grow and in 1891 reached its "peak" - 109 thousand people. In 1894, it fell sharply, which was associated with a trade agreement between Russia and Germany, which facilitated the border crossing and allowed for a short trip abroad and return. Labor, or economic, emigration in the pre-revolutionary period was the most massive. It was composed mainly of landless peasants, artisans, unskilled workers. In total, from 1861 to 1915, 4 million 200 thousand 500 people left Russia, of which 3 million 978.9 thousand people emigrated to the New World, mainly to the United States, which is 94%. It should be noted that most of the emigrants from Russia were not ethnic Russians. More than 40% of the emigrants were Jews. According to the qualification of 1910, 1 thousand 732.5 thousand natives of Russia were registered in the USA, and persons of “Russian origin” - 2 thousand 781.2 thousand. Among the natives of Russia: 838 thousand Jews, 418 thousand Poles , 137 thousand Lithuanians, 121 thousand Germans and only 40.5 thousand Russians. Thus, it turns out that by 1910 no more than 3% of all people of Russian origin lived in the United States in Russia. Pinpoint ethnic composition   labor emigration of the late XIX - early XX centuries. does not seem possible. So, in the USA, Ukrainians, Carpathians, mainly immigrants from the western and southern provinces, were registered as Russian (or Rusyns) Russian Empire, from Austria-Hungary (Galicia, Bukovina), Transcarpathia. They identified themselves with the Russians and, broadly speaking, with East Slavic culture. Their descendants have largely preserved this continuity to our time, and most of the 10 million parishioners of the Russian Church in America (the American Metropolitanate), and numerous Ukrainian and Carpathian churches are descendants of labor emigrants. In the late XIX - early XX centuries. Russian peasants in America united mainly around church parishes and peasant fraternities, mutual aid societies. Among this category of emigrants there were few educated and literate people: they did not write books and memoirs, but through generations they carried love and respect for Russia, preserving the traditions of Orthodoxy, as evidenced by dozens of Russian Orthodox churches built by their hands.
  Some idea of \u200b\u200bthe number of Russian emigrants in the XIX century. give tables 1 and 2.
  However, it should be borne in mind that the data in these tables give an idea of \u200b\u200b"subjects of the Russian Empire", and not actually of the Russians. As mentioned above, the percentage of the latter was relatively small. For example, in 1890 - 1900. he accounted for only 2% of all those who left. Of those who arrived in Germany in 1911 - 1912. almost 260 thousand people were “registered” by Russians only in 1915, and in 1912 - 1913. from about the same number - 6360 (Voblyy K. G. Departure for earnings in Germany and the Russian-German trade agreement // Tr. South-West Department of the Russian Passport Chamber. Kiev, 1924, p. 7). A similar situation was observed in Canada. So, from the former subjects of the Russian Empire who left for Canada, the actual Russians were: in 1900 - 1903. - 11 thousand people, which amounted to 46% of the total; in 1904 - 1908 - 17 thousand (34%), in 1909 - 1913 - 64 thousand (56%), and only for 1900 - 1913. - 92 thousand (Russian. M., 1997, S. 146).
It is necessary to mention one more category of Russian emigrants - those who left for religious reasons. Their numbers from 1826 to 1905, according to V.D. Bonch-Bruevich, amounted to 26.5 thousand Orthodox and sectarians, of which 18 thousand left in the last decade of the XIX century. and in five pre-revolutionary years. The largest flows of religious Russian emigration until 1917 were mainly Dukhobors, Molokans, and Old Believers. In the 1890s, the Dukhobor movement intensified with the aim of relocating to America. Some of the Dukhobors were sent to Yakutia, but many in 1905 obtained permission to resettle in America. In 1898 - 1902 about 7.5 thousand Dukhobors moved to Canada, many of them then moved to the United States. In the first decade of the 20th century, more than 3,500 Molokans left for the USA, they settled mainly in California. The Dukhobors, Molokans, and Old Believers largely determined the nature of Russian emigration to America at the beginning of the 20th century. In particular, in 1920 in Los Angeles, out of 3,750 Russians living there, only 100 were Orthodox, the remaining 97% were representatives of various religious sects. The Dukhobors, Old Believers on the American continent, thanks to a fairly separate way of life, to a large extent were able to preserve Russian traditions and customs to this day. Despite the significant Americanization of life and expansion of English language, they even now continue to remain the islands of Russia abroad.
One cannot but mention the mass emigration abroad of representatives of national minorities of Tsarist Russia in the 19th century. First of all, Tatars, Germans, Poles and Jews. In many ways, this emigration was caused by religious reasons. But these flows of emigration are not the subject of study of this work, because only with a big stretch can one consider the Russian (or Russian emigration) emigration of the Mennonite Germans, Crimean Tatars, Poles, most Jews, etc., although they emigrated from Russia. We do not consider such groups in our work, because they very quickly lost any connection with Russia and Russian culture. Although the scale of such emigration from pre-revolutionary Russia was significant, it was more correct to use the term “resettlement from Russia” in relation to it. It would hardly be justifiable to consider the Tatar population of Turkey as descendants of Russian emigrants, and they themselves identify themselves not even with the Tatars, but with the Turks. Just as it would be incorrect to consider the American director S. Spielberg and the magician D. Copperfield as representatives of the Russian diaspora on the American continent only on the grounds that their ancestors were from Odessa. It would be very problematic to detect any influence of Russian culture among the descendants of German immigrants from Russia of the 19th century in Germany and the USA.
The peculiarity of Jewish emigration from Russia is due to the fact that it includes all possible typologies of emigration: political, labor, religious, national, often intertwined and difficult to identify. Another feature of Jewish emigration is that part of it has for over 150 years retained elements of Russian culture and the Russian language. Evidence of this is the large number of Russian-language newspapers, magazines, organizations created by her that use the Russian language as a means of communication. The beginning of mass Jewish emigration dates back to the 70s of the 19th century. Moreover, more than 90% of Jewish emigrants were sent to the United States. In the 70s, of all Russian emigrants who arrived in the United States, 42% were Jews, in the 80s they amounted to 58.2%. The absolute number of Jewish emigrants continues to increase throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This was largely due to the restriction of the rights of Jews in the 80s. In particular, the enactment in 1882 of the "Provisional Rules" of Jewish residence in rural areas. They forbade Jews to settle outside cities, to acquire property, to rent land. In 1887, Jews were forbidden to settle in Rostov-on-Don and in the Taganrog district, in 1891 - in Moscow and the Moscow region. Between 1886 and 1887, decrees were issued restricting the right of Jews to enroll in gymnasiums and real schools throughout Russia. In the USA, Jewish emigrants settled mainly in the states of the North Atlantic, primarily New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. In 1891 - 1900 234.2 thousand Russian Jews left for the USA, which made up 36.5% of all Russian emigrants who arrived in the USA. Jewish emigration reaches its peak at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1901 - 1910 704.2 thousand Jews arrived in the USA, which made up 44.1% of all Russian immigrants. Jewish emigration cannot be classified as labor or temporary. There were practically no re-emigrants among the Jews, i.e. they deliberately tried to find a new homeland in the country of entry. This is partly due to the peculiarities of Russian legislation of that period. In tsarist Russia, emigration was prohibited - only temporary travel abroad was allowed. An exception to this rule was only Jews who received, according to the "Rules" of May 8, 1892, the right to officially leave the country, without the right to return.
  On the number of people who left Russia in 1900 - 1917. and emigrants settled in different countries are clearly shown by the data given in table 3.
Political emigration is a complex, diverse phenomenon that includes the whole spectrum of social life in pre-revolutionary Russia. Perhaps, there is not a single noticeable trend in the political and public life of pre-revolutionary Russia that would not be represented in exile. Political emigrants from Russia published only in Europe for the period 1855-1917. 287 newspapers and magazines. Another feature of political emigration is its close interweaving and its relationship with labor, national, and religious emigrants. Such a variety is virtually unclassifiable. The traditional principles of dividing the trends of political emigration into conservative, liberal, socialist, or, noble, motivated, proletarian emigration, etc. do not reflect the entire spectrum of Russian political emigration. It is quite conditionally possible to distinguish two stages in the history of political emigration until 1917: 1. Narodnik, beginning from the emigration of A.I. Herzen in 1847 and ending in 1883 with the formation in Geneva of the Emancipation of Labor group, uniting the first Russian Marxists emigrants (G.V. Plekhanov, P. B Axelrod, V.I. Zasulich, L.G. Deich and others); 2. Proletarian - from 1883 to 1917. The first, populist stage is characterized by the absence of political parties with a clearly defined structure and the small number of political emigrants. Basically, these are Narodnaya Volya or, as they are commonly called in Marxist historiography, "representatives of the second stage of the revolutionary movement." The second stage in the history of political emigration is characterized by the formation of a huge number of different groups, societies and parties of political emigrants. And this is not protoparty, but real parties with a clearly organized structure. The second stage also differs from the first by its relative mass character - colonies of Russian emigrants, editorial offices of the press, party bodies were formed at that time in all major cities of Europe. (The main centers of Russian emigration were: Geneva, where 109 Russian periodicals were published during 1855 - 1917; Paris - 95; London - 42; Berlin - 17). By the beginning of the 20th century, over 150 Russian political parties operated outside of Russia. Characteristic   the order of formation and stratification of Russian political parties was the initial design of parties of a socialist orientation, then liberal and, finally, conservative.
One of the first political emigrants of the 19th century was professor of Moscow University V.S. Pecherin (1807 - 1885). In 1836, he left Russia, becoming a political emigrant. Subsequently, Pecherin adopted Catholicism and became one of the most prominent figures in the Order of the Redemptorists, a well-known educator in Ireland. He was not a revolutionary, but actively collaborated with Herzen, in particular Herzen published his correspondence with Pecherin in the Polar Star. In 1840, the first emigration of M.A. Bakunin began, ending with his extradition to the tsarist government in 1851. In 1843, I.G. Golovnin, an official of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, who later lived in Europe and America for several decades, became a defector. Golovnin was also the author of the first revolutionary emigre pamphlet published in 1849 - “The Catechism of the Russian People”.
  But, political emigration as a phenomenon begins with A.I. Herzen, who went abroad in 1847. In 1853, Herzen founded the Free Russian Printing House in London. Since 1855 he published the anthology "Polar Star", in 1857 - 67 years. together with N. P. Ogarev, he published the first Russian revolutionary newspaper Kolokol. The first fairly large group of political emigrants were the Volunteers who emigrated to flee the repression of the tsarist government. The most prominent representatives of this movement of political emigrants were P. L. Lavrov, M. A. Bakunin. P.N. Tkachev, P.A. Kropotkin, S.M. Stepnyak-Kravchinsky.
  An important event in the history of Russian political emigration was the creation in 1870 of a group of emigrants led by Utin in Geneva of the Russian section of the International. Most well-known organizations   of a populist nature were "Land and Freedom", "Narodnaya Volya", "Black Redistribution". From the Russian foreign press of this period, the Vperyod magazine (1873 - 1877) published by Lavrov in Zurich and London, the Nabat newspaper Tkacheva, published in Geneva and London (1875 - 1881), and the Bulletin of People’s Will (1883 - 1886) stand out from the Russian foreign press of this period. , the Geneva newspaper "Grain" (1880 - 1881), the London "At Home" (1882 - 1883), "Narodnaya Volya. Social-revolutionary review ”(1879 - 1885) and others.
In the 70s of the XIX century, Narodnaya Volya began to penetrate into America. In the 70s there already existed several circles and communities of Russian revolutionary emigrants (the commune of Frey, G. A. Mastet, and others). A notable personality among Russian emigrants in America was the former hierodeacon of the Russian mission in Athens, then an employee of the Herzen Free Printing House and, since 1864, an emigrant to the United States, Agapiy Goncharenko. He is considered the founder of the Russian press in America. The first political emigrant to the United States was Colonel General Staff I.V. Turchaninov, who emigrated there in 1856. Subsequently, he entered the history of America as one of the heroes of the war between the North and the South, in which he took part on the side of the northerners, commanding the regiment. Until the early 1880s, the number of Russian political emigrants in America was extremely small. The flow of political emigrants increased after the accession of Alexander III. Among the Russian political emigrants to the United States of this period can be called N.K. Sudzilovskogo, N. Aleinikov, P.M. Fedorov, V.L. Burtsev and others. In 1893, after the conclusion of an agreement between the governments of the United States and Russia on the extradition of political emigrants, many Russian emigrants were forced to leave the United States or to accept American citizenship. For political emigration to the United States, as well as for all political emigration, a gradual retreat into the background of its populist component is characteristic and, by the beginning of the 1890s, the complete domination of the Social Democrats. In particular, in the 1890s, the Russian Social Democratic Society was active in New York, and a group of Russian Social Democrats in Chicago. The Russian Social Democrats were associated with the Emancipation of Labor group, and subsequently with the editors of Iskra. The number of Russian political emigrants in America rose sharply after the defeat of the revolution of 1905-1907.
  A significant episode in the history of Russian political emigration was the activity of Herzen's friend, a high-ranking opposition figure, Prince P.V. Dolgorukov. Dolgorukov collaborated with the Herzen's Bell, providing information compromising the ruling strata of tsarist Russia from its illegally exported archive. Dolgorukov also published his periodicals “Future”, “Leaf”, “True” and others. Here are just some of the publications of Prince Dolgorukov: “The current state of affairs at court”, “Emperor Alexander Nikolaevich. His character and lifestyle. His wife Maria Alexandrovna ”,“ About what is happening in the Ministry of Finance ”,“ Career of Mina Ivanovna ”, etc.
The beginning of the second, or “proletarian” stage of the formation of Russian political emigration until 1917 was associated with the creation in 1883 in Geneva of the Emancipation of Labor group. Its origins were former leaders of the populist movement: G. V. Plekhanov, a member of the Earth and Freedom organization and the leader of the Black Redistribution, P. B. Axelrod, Plekhanov's associate in the Black Redistribution, and the former editor-in-chief of the Bakunin newspaper Community ”, The earthman VN Ignatov and others. The group laid the foundation for the Marxist trend in the history of political emigration. Abroad, members of the Emancipation of Labor group published the Library of Modern Socialism and the Work Library. The activities of the Emancipation of Labor group prepared education in 1898, and the finalization of the RSDLP in 1903, with Plekhanov, Axelrod, Zasulich, members of the Emancipation of Labor group, playing a large role in the formation of the RSDLP. The RSDLP has created the largest, compared with other emigrant parties and associations, the infrastructure of party organizations and groups abroad. In particular, the RSDLP overseas groups worked in Geneva, Bern, Paris, Berlin, Munich, Karlsruhe, Freiburg, Boston, Budapest, Lviv, Leipzig, Mannheim, Brussels, Nice, San Remo, Hamburg, Lausanne, Bremen, Lierene, Liege Antwerp, Davos, Copenhagen, Toulouse, Chicago, New York and many other cities in Europe and America. The most famous press organs of the RSDLP are the Iskra, Zarya, Vperyod, Proletary, Pravda, Social Democrat newspapers and others. In 1908, the center of Russian political emigration moved from Geneva to Paris.
  As already mentioned above, emigration, especially emigration of the 19th - early 20th centuries, is a complex, diverse phenomenon that does not fit into the Procrustean bed of any classification and systematization. The division of emigrants into political, economic, who left their homeland due to religious oppression, etc. far from covering all the components of emigration. The motives, reasons that prompted a person to become an emigrant are often very individual. And each has its own story. The only thing that unites this community, a group of people called emigrants, is that they all left their homeland for a long time, and sometimes for a lifetime.
In the period of the second half of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries, many figures of Russian science, culture and simply rich nobles lived abroad. N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, K.P. Bryullov, I.I. Mechnikov and others lived for a long time abroad. The reasons for their emigration are very diverse. Often this is a search for more favorable conditions for creativity and scientific work, personal reasons. These diverse motifs are often intertwined.
  Z. A. Volkonskaya forever left Russia in 1829 and settled in Rome, where she lived for about 30 years. Villa Volkonskaya for many years has become the main cultural center of the Russian foreign countries in the first half and mid-19th century. And today this villa with a huge garden is called "Villa Volkonskaya." In the villa 3. A. Volkonskaya creates an Alley of Memories. She erects marble steles in honor of A. S. Pushkin and N. M. Karamzin, an urn in memory of D. V. Venevitinov. Frequent guests at Volkonskaya were N. V. Gogol, A. I. Turgenev, M. I. Glinka, K. P. Bryullov, A. A. Ivanov, V. A. Zhukovsky and many others. Volkonskaya salon in Rome was one of the most famous in Europe. Here gathered not only figures of Russian culture, but also of Western Europe. At Volkonskaya, writers read their stories, poems, plays, composers introduced the public to new works. Often concerts were held and even operas were staged. Villa Volkonskaya also had a huge library and a rich collection of art. In February 1915, in Rome, with the aim of assisting Russian emigrants and uniting the Russian colony, the A. Herzen Society was created. The founders of the society were G.I. Schreider, V.N. Richter and other emigrants.
  From 1847 until his death in 1883, he lived abroad, mainly in France, I. S. Turgenev. In 1877, a historian, geographer, member of the Russian Geographical Society, correspondent of the Bell magazine M. I. Venyukov emigrated to France. In the early 30s of the XIX century, mother and daughter of Vereshchagins, Elizaveta Arkadevna and Alexandra Mikhailovna, went abroad for permanent residence. A.M. Vereshchagin, cousin of Lermontov, was friends with him during his life in Moscow and was in correspondence. In 1837 A.M. Vereshchagin married Baron Karl von Hugel and since then has not returned to Russia, living mainly in Paris and Stuttgart.
Russian microbiologist, Nobel laureate, I.I. Mechnikov lived in France from 1888 until his death in 1916. In 1888, Mechnikov accepted the offer of Louis Pasteur and headed the largest laboratory of the bacteriological institute in Paris; since 1903, he was also the deputy director of this institution.
  The centers of the Russian pre-revolutionary foreign countries were also numerous Russian libraries, which are available in many cities of Europe. One of the first Russian emigrant libraries was the Slavic Library in Paris, founded in 1855 by Russian Jesuits at the initiative of Prince I. S. Gagarin. Significant cultural center of the Russian colony in Paris was the "Russian Library. I. S. Turgenev. " It opened in January 1875. Its founders were I. S. Turgenev and G. A. Lopatin. In 1883, after the death of Turgenev, the library was named after him. In Rome in 1902, the “Russian Library named after N.V. Gogol ". The first to enter the library was the Club of Russian Artists in Rome, which had ceased to exist. Thus, the library received several thousand volumes. The library often hosted readings, concerts, debates. Lecturers were P. D. Boborykin, S. M. Volkonsky, V. F. Ern, S. M. Soloviev, and others. On Wednesdays, weekly meetings were organized for Russian emigrants in Rome. Library named after Gogol was a non-partisan institution and sought to remain equally accessible to all Russian emigrants, regardless of their political views. The membership fee for members of the library was 15 francs. Since 1912, in Rome, there was also the “Society of the Russian Library and Reading Room named after L. N. Tolstoy.” Any Russian emigrant who had lived in Rome for at least three months could be a member of the Society.
The largest book collection of Russian books outside of Russia was owned by the Slavika Library at Alexander University in Helsinki. From 1828 and until 1917, regularly receiving, by decree of Nicholas I, mandatory copies of all books published in the Russian Empire. In addition, it was replenished not only due to obligatory copies, but also due to donations and nominal gifts. The most valuable of them was the “Alexander Gift”, received from the son of Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, Pavel Konstantinovich Alexandrov. He donated 24 thousand volumes from two libraries to the Slavika - the Bolshoi Gatchinskaya and the Marble Palace libraries, consisting mainly of old books from the 17th and 18th centuries. By 1917, the library had about 350 thousand titles of books.
  One cannot fail to mention another large group of Russian people who became involuntary emigrants. These are Russians living in Alaska who became emigrants involuntarily - after the sale of Alaska to America in 1867. The parishes of the Russian Orthodox Church also involuntarily ended up in exile.
  The Russian Orthodox Church in America dates back to the first Orthodox mission in Alaska in 1794. Since the sale of Alaska to America in 1867, the Russian Church in America has been on the territory of another state - the United States. Since that time, her parishioners have been replenished mainly due to converted Americans. In fact, since 1867, the Russian Orthodox Church in America has become the Local Orthodox Church, i.e. Having found “its place”, it is in canonical dependence on the Russian Orthodox Church. Gradually, churches of the Russian Orthodox Church appear in the ancestral territory of the USA - in San Francisco (1867), in New York (1870), and all Orthodox living in the USA are already among their parishioners: Serbs, Greeks, Syrians, immigrants from Austria Hungary, etc. In 1903, the Russian Church in America had 52 temples, 69 chapels. The number of registered parishioners reached 32 thousand people, while there were only 876 immigrants from Russia. In order not to embarrass parishioners who did not have Russian citizenship, the Holy Synod, by decree of January 27, 1906, did not allow the practice of commemoration at the services of Emperor Nicholas II, but US President. By 1917, there were already about a hundred thousand registered parishioners and 306 churches and chapels in the American Church. In addition, the Syro-Arab Mission, the Serbian and Albanian missions belonged to the Russian Church.
Summing up the analysis of Russian emigration in pre-revolutionary Russia, we can draw the following conclusions. Emigration as a phenomenon and a subject of study for historians, demographers, and other specialists appears in Russia only from the middle of the 19th century. It is from the middle of the 19th century that one can speak of such concepts as the Russian emigrant press and literature of the Russian diaspora. During the second half of the century before last and the beginning of the past, a fairly large Russian diaspora was formed in Europe and America, with its infrastructure of emigrant institutions, newspaper and magazine editorial offices, archives and libraries. It should be noted that the pre-revolutionary emigration of the 19th - early 20th centuries was the most significant in size, compared with subsequent emigrations, the number of emigrants from Russia in this period exceeds 7 million people. This is largely due to the fact that pre-revolutionary emigration was longer in time and was not caused by any political cataclysms, in contrast to subsequent emigrations. Moreover, in tsarist Russia, emigration was not regulated by law. The transfer of Russian citizens to another citizenship was forbidden, and the period of stay abroad was limited to five years, after which it was necessary to apply for an extension of the term, otherwise the person was considered to have lost citizenship, and his property would be transferred to the guardian board, and he, returning to Russia, subject to eternal exile. Thus, until 1917, emigration from Russia was semi-legal in nature and in fact was not officially regulated in any way ...
  As shown above, pre-revolutionary period was dominated by labor or economic emigration. The peculiarity of the majority of emigrants (with the exception of the Dukhobors and Old Believers) was the desire to adapt to a new life as soon as possible, to find their place in a foreign country. Most of them settled in America.
The February Revolution of 1917 put an end to "anti-czarist" political emigration. In March 1917, the majority of revolutionaries of various political shades returned to Russia. To facilitate their repatriation, even Homecoming Committees were created. They acted in France, Switzerland, England, USA. But already in November 1917, the opposite phenomenon began to develop - emigration, bearing an anti-Soviet, anti-Bolshevik and anti-communist character. She received the name "White emigration", or "The first wave of Russian emigration." It should be discussed in more detail, since it was the First Emigration that played a significant role in the development and preservation of Russian national culture and its spiritual roots.
  Chapter from the book
  “Emigration and repatriation in Russia”
  V.A. Iontsev, N.M. Lebedeva,
  M.V. Nazarov, A.V. Okorokov

Introduction

1. Emigration from the Russian Empire

2. Emigration from the USSR

2.1 The first wave (1918-1923)

2.2 The second wave (1941-1945)

2.3 The Third Wave (1948-1989 / 1990)

2.4 Fourth Wave (1990 --   before the collapse of the USSR)

3. Emigration from modern Russia

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Migrations (Latin: migratio, from migro - I’m moving, moving), or spatial movement of the population, are one of the most complex historical and demographic phenomena that define many of the features of modern social, as well as other life.

In the context of demographic science, migrations are identical to the mechanical movement of the population and mean one or another difference in the number of people arriving in a certain territory and the number of people who have left there for the same period of time (migration balance). Along with the ratio of mortality and birth rate, or the natural movement of the population, migration, or the mechanical movement of the population, are two components that determine the dynamics of the population.

A significant sign of migration is their nature - voluntary or forced, legal or illegal, etc. This is especially true for the 20th century, rich in manifestations of violence and cruelty, which have clearly manifested themselves in migration processes.

Migration of the population is usually associated with a change of place of residence, therefore they are divided into: irrevocable (change of permanent residence), temporary (relocation for a limited period), seasonal (moving in certain periods of the year). There are also the so-called pendulum migrations (regular trips to the place of work or study outside of their settlement. At the same time, internal migration within the framework of one state (from village to city, inter-district resettlement, and others) and external or international migrations, implying the crossing of state borders by migrants, are distinguished. With regard to external migration, the outflow of the population is related to emigration, and the influx is related to immigration. In addition, there are also such varieties of external migration as repatriation (returning to their homeland) and option (choice of citizenship when changing state borders of the state). But in this work we will focus on emigration.

Emigration (from lat. Emigro - evict) is a voluntary or forced departure to another country for permanent or temporary (for a long term) residence. Emigration does not necessarily imply naturalization and the acquisition or change of citizenship or citizenship.

Accordingly, emigrants are citizens who voluntarily or compelled to leave their home country and settled in some other country. Emigrants do not include citizens living abroad on duty, such as diplomats. Emigrants do not include representatives of scientific and creative intelligentsia who go abroad for several months or even years to study, work, and treat. Some simply prefer to live or work abroad from time to time, but these are not emigrants either.

The reasons for emigration can be various, among which: personal welfare, economic, political, war, famine, poverty, political repression, ethnic conflicts, natural and environmental disasters, family reunification, professional plans and other family plans, difficulties in implementing creative plans in the country of residence. The motives of emigration, of course, lend themselves to group interpretation, but there has always been and will be present in them a personal, purely individual motive - and often decisive.

So, we are starting a conversation about Russian emigration.

1. Emigration from the Russian Empire

It is customary to count Russian emigration from the 16th century, from the time of Ivan the Terrible. It is established that the first widely known political emigrant can be considered Prince Andrei Kurbsky. In the XVII century. "defectors" appeared - young nobles whom Boris Godunov sent to Europe to study, but they did not return to their homeland. However, until the mid-19th century, cases of emigration were rare. And only after the Peasant Reform of 1861, travel outside of Russia became a mass phenomenon.

For all that, there was no such legal concept as “emigration” in pre-revolutionary Russian legislation. The transfer of Russians to another citizenship was forbidden, and the time spent outside the country was limited to five years, after which they should apply for an extension of time. If the refusal and non-return followed, then the person lost his citizenship and was subjected to arrest, exile until the end of his days and deprivation of property.

Pre-revolutionary emigration is more correctly divided not by chronology, but by typological groups: labor (or economic), religious, Jewish and political (or revolutionary). The emigrants of the first three groups mainly left for the USA and Canada, and the fourth to Europe.

Labor or economic emigration in the pre-revolutionary period was the most massive .   It was composed mainly of landless peasants, artisans, unskilled workers. In total for 1851 - 1915 4.200.500 people left Russia, of which 3.978.9 thousand people emigrated to the New World, mainly to the United States, which is 94%. It is noteworthy that the vast majority of pre-revolutionary emigrants were, as a rule, natives of other countries living in Russia: Germany (more than 1,400 thousand people), Persia (850 thousand), Austria-Hungary (800 thousand) and Turkey (400 thousand )

The number of Russian emigrants who left for religious reasons is approximately 30 thousand. The largest emigration flows until 1917 were members of various religious groups persecuted for their religions: Dukhobors (sect of spiritual Christians; rejects Orthodox rites and sacraments, priests, monasticism), Molokans ( sect of spiritual Christians; reject priests and churches, perform prayers in ordinary houses) and Old Believers (part of Orthodox Christians who departed from the Church prevailing in Russia after the reforms of the Moscow Patriarch PXA Nikon). In the 1890s, the Dukhobor movement intensified with the aim of relocating to America. Part of the Dukhobors was sent to Yakutia, but many obtained permission to resettle in America. In 1898-1902 about 7, 5 thousand Dukhobors moved to Canada, many of them then moved to the USA. In 1905, they obtained permission to resettle in Canada and some Dukhobors from Yakutia. In the first decade of the 20th century, more than 3, 5 thousand Molokans left for the USA, they settled mainly in California. The Dukhobors, Molokans, and Old Believers largely determined the nature of Russian emigration to America at the beginning of the 20th century. In particular, in 1920 in Los Angeles, out of 3,750 Russians living there, only 100 were Orthodox, the remaining 97% were representatives of various religious sects. The Dukhobors and Old Believers on the American continent, thanks to a fairly separate way of life, were able to preserve to this day Russian traditions and customs to this day. Despite the significant Americanization of life and the expansion of the English language, they even now continue to remain islands of Russia abroad

More than 40% of the emigrants were Jews. The emigration of Jews increased significantly after the assassination of the reformer Tsar Alexander II and the subsequent Jewish pogroms. Regarding the departure of the Jews, Permission was issued to the Jews ... (1880), which allowed them to leave the empire, but punished them with the deprivation of the right to return. Jews began to leave mainly to the New World, and many settled in the United States. This choice is not accidental: according to the American constitution, Jews had the same civil and religious rights as Christians. The peak of Jewish emigration from Russia to the USA occurred at the beginning of the 20th century. - More than 700 thousand people left the country.

Political emigration from the Russian Empire was quite a few and was a diverse and complex phenomenon, since it included all the colors of public life in pre-revolutionary Russia. It is very conditionally possible to divide the history of political emigration until 1917 into two periods: 1. People’s, starting from the emigration in 1847 of the Russian publicist, writer and philosopher A.I. Herzen and ending in 1883 with the formation in Geneva of the Marxist group Emancipation of Labor "; 2. Proletarian (or socialist) from 1883 to 1917. The first period is characterized by the absence of political parties with a clearly defined structure and a small number of emigrants (mainly “representatives of the second stage of the revolutionary movement”). The second period of political emigration is much more massive and more structured, characterized by a huge number of diverse groups, societies and parties (the most real) of political emigrants. By the beginning of the 20th century, over 150 Russian political parties were operating outside the borders of Russia. The main feature of the formation order of these parties was the design of the parties, first socialist orientation, then liberal and, finally, conservative. The Russian government tried in various ways to prevent political emigration, to suppress or impede its "subversive" activities abroad; with a number of countries (in particular, with the USA), it concluded agreements on the mutual extradition of political emigrants, which made them virtually illegal.

The most famous Russian emigrants of the pre-revolutionary time are, perhaps, Herzen, Gogol, Turgenev (France and Germany, 1847-1883), Mechnikov (Paris, 1888-1916), Lenin, Pirogov and Gorky.

The First World War led to a sharp decline in international migrations, primarily labor and especially intercontinental ones (but internal migrations also increased sharply, which was primarily due to the flows of refugees and evacuated fleeing the advancing enemy troops: their subsequent return was like usually only partial). It greatly accelerated the revolutionary situation and thereby made its “contribution” to the victory of the Bolsheviks and Left Social Revolutionaries. Massive political emigration began after the October Revolution. The country was left by people who did not agree with the coming to power of the Bolsheviks, who had no reason to equate themselves with the class whose power had been proclaimed.

2. Emigration from the USSR

In general, a generally accepted pattern of dividing into periods of Russian emigration after 1917, emigration from the Soviet Union has already developed. It consisted of four, the so-called emigration "waves", radically different from each other in geographical structure, reasons, duration, etc.

“Wave” is not a scientific concept, but rather a purely figurative one. This concept is widely known and terminologically developed, but at the same time it can hardly withstand the load of a scientific concept and term. It would probably be more correct to call them not waves, but periods corresponding to one or another chronological framework; behind the waves, however, a somewhat different, more characteristic load should be preserved - bursts, flashes or limits of emigration.

Therefore, indicating the chronological framework of a particular wave in brackets, it must be remembered that they indicate no more than the time of literally relocation, that is, the first phase of emigration. There are also other phases no less significant than the first, and they have different chronological boundaries. For example, the phase of the consolidation of emigrants, the formation of their public organizations and the press, etc.

labor emigration

2.1 The first wave (1918-1923)

The first wave of emigration chronologically covers the period from 1917 to the 1920s. These are, for the most part, military and civilians who fled from the Soviet regime that won the revolution and the Civil War, as well as from hunger. Emigration from Bolshevik Russia, according to various estimates, ranged from 1.5 to 3 million people. The main centers of Russian emigration of the first wave were Berlin, Prague, Belgrade, Paris, Constantinople, Harbin, Shanghai.

This emigration is also called White emigration, and it is clear for what reason. After the defeat of the White Army in the Northwest, the first military emigrants began to be parts of the army of General Yudenich, isolated in Estonia in 1918. After the defeats in the East, the next center of the emigration diaspora (approximately 400 thousand people) was formed in Manchuria in Harbin. After the defeats in the South, the steamships that followed from the retreating Denikin and Wrangel forces from the Black Sea to the rear, as a rule, headed for Constantinople, which became Little Russia for the time being.

Along with the troops, many civilians were evacuated, mostly from the intelligentsia, including academics and professors, about 30 bishops and thousands of priests.

In 1922 they were joined by about 150 representatives of the higher culture of Russia (philosophers, thinkers, scientists, writers and poets), illegally expelled from their homeland and deported to Western Europe   without any trial, no judgment, on Lenin’s personal order, who claimed that the communist state “needs neither philosophers nor mathematicians”, because it can be controlled by “any cook”. Such as: Nikolai Berdyaev, Ivan Ilyin, Sergey Bulgakov, Semyon Frank and others.

All this huge mass of people of both sexes, including old people and children, was illegally deprived of their Russian citizenship by the Soviet government, without the slightest court decision, by decree of communist international tyranny of December 15, 1921.

Thus, a group of about 3 million Russian emigrants and refugees who illegally lost their citizenship arose in the world. This circumstance forced Fridtjof Nansen, manager of refugee affairs of the League of Nations, Nobel laureate, to create a special passport in 1924, then nicknamed the "Nansen Passport", which confirmed the "lack of citizenship" of Russian white immigrants.

Among the political, military, church leaders who left Russia after 1917 were Alexander Kerensky, Pavel Milyukov, Vasily Shulgin, surviving members of the imperial family, Peter Wrangel, Alexander Kutepov, Anton Denikin, other representatives of the white general, church hierarchs Anthony (Khrapovitsky), Eulogius (St. George), Benjamin (Fedchenkov) and many others.

Many figures of Russian science and culture became emigrants. A wave of emigration separated from Russia such artists as Ivan Bunin, Alexander Kuprin, Marina Tsvetaeva, Konstantin Korovin, Ivan Bilibin, Alexander Benois, Marc Chagall, Sergey Rachmaninov, Fedor Chaliapin and many others.

The first wave of immigrants hoped for a speedy return to Russia, expecting a quick collapse of the Soviet state. They considered their exile forced and short-lived. For these reasons, they sought to live apart, not wanting to adapt to life in the countries where they lived. Created emigrant colonies.

The first emigration was unique in terms of quantity and quality. Firstly, it was the largest emigration that occurred in a very short period. Secondly, it was the center of all emigration, professed the idea of \u200b\u200bstatehood, monarchism, estate, churchness and private property. Thirdly, foreign emigration managed to preserve for posterity cultural values, a variety of private archives, which are invaluable for the whole of Russia.

2.2 The second wave (1941-1945)

The second wave of emigration is connected with the Second World War. Its participants were people who left the country during the war (prisoners of war, refugees) and evaded repatriation. According to official figures, the number of displaced people who did not return to their homeland amounted to 130 thousand people, according to some experts - 500-700 thousand people.

During the Great Patriotic War, a large number of Soviet citizens ended up abroad. For some, this was against their own will. People fell from a communist dictatorship to a Nazi dictatorship. Germany’s capture of large territories of Russia put the people there in a difficult tragic situation. Jews were killed, while others were taken to Germany for forced labor. Also, people who were afraid of reprisals that ended up in German occupation were forced to emigrate with the German army outside of Russia. People were guided by only one feeling: the desire to be saved, to stay alive.

The peculiarity of the emigration processes of this period was, firstly, that a significant part of the emigrants (including the first wave) left Europe overseas - to the USA, Canada, Australia, South America; secondly, the fact that some of the "old" emigrants after the Second World War ended up in territories that had become part of the USSR or included in the zone of Soviet influence.

We can talk about approximately 5, 45 million civilians, one way or another displaced from the territory that belonged to the USSR before the war, to the territory owned or controlled before the war by the Third Reich or its allies. Taking into account 3, 25 million prisoners of war, the total number of Soviet citizens deported outside the USSR was about 8, 7 million people.

A large number of people did not live to victory, especially among prisoners of war. Many repatriated to their homeland, while others remained in the West, becoming the center of the so-called “Second Wave” of emigration from the USSR.

At the beginning of the war, everything painful in the structure of the Soviet state was revealed. The cruelty of the Stalinist regime towards people living in the territories of the USSR covered by Germans entailed a large shift of people to the side of the enemy. This was the greatest tragedy in the history of wars, the tragedy of a large state. People were afraid of cruel repression, and inhumane treatment of their destinies. The thirst for revenge, the desire for liberation from the Stalinist regime forced some soldiers and officers of the Red Army to participate in hostilities in the German army.

In the "Second Wave" of Russian emigration there were many people who devoted themselves to creativity. Poets: Ivan Elagin, Dmitry Klenovsky, Olga Anstey, Boris Narcissov; prose writers: Leonid Rzhevsky, Sergey Maximov. Some of them survived the Stalinist Gulag.

According to one of the official estimates made by the Office for Repatriation on the basis of incomplete data by January 1, 1952, 451,561 Soviet citizens still remained abroad.

If in 1946 more than 80% of defectors were inside the western occupation zones in Germany and Austria, now now they accounted for only about 23% of their number. So, in all six western zones of Germany and Austria there were 103, 7 thousand people, while in England alone - 100, 0; Australia - 50, 3; Canada - 38, 4; USA - 35, 3; Sweden - 27, 6; France - 19, 7 and Belgium - 14, 7 thousand “temporarily unrepatriated”. In this regard, the ethnic structure of the defectors is very expressive. Most of them were Ukrainians - 144,934 people (or 32, 1%), followed by three Baltic peoples - Latvians (109214 people, or 24, 2%), Lithuanians (63401, or 14, 0%) and Estonians (58924, or 13.0%). All of them, together with 9 856 Belarusians (2, 2%), accounted for 85, 5% of registered defectors. Actually, this is, with some rounding and overestimation, the quota of “Westerners” (in Zemskov's terminology) in the structure of this contingent. According to V.N. Zemskova, “Westerners” accounted for 3/4, and “Easterners” - only 1/4 of the number of defectors. But most likely the share of “Westerners” is even higher, especially if it is assumed that a sufficient number of Poles were included in the category “others” (33528 people, or 7, 4%). Russians among defectors are only 31,704, or 7.0%.

In light of this, the scale of Western estimates of the number of defectors, an order of magnitude lower than the Soviet ones and, as it were, oriented to the number of Russians by ethnicity in this environment, becomes clear. So, according to M. Foodfoot, about 35 thousand former Soviet citizens are officially registered as “remaining in the West”.

The second wave of emigration was numerous. It consisted of “displaced persons” —the prisoners of war who remained in the West and the people who emigrated from the USSR with Hitler's retreating army (approximately 8-10 million people). The Great Patriotic War was to blame for all of this. But be that as it may, Stalin’s fears were justified by tens and hundreds of thousands of former Soviet or sub-Soviet citizens, by hook or by crook, but they avoided repatriation and nevertheless made up the so-called “second emigration”.

2.3 The Third Wave (1948-1989 / 1990)

Third   the wave of emigration chronologically covers the period from the late 1940s to the second half of the 1980s. Artists and creative intelligentsia left the USSR with a third wave of emigration. Emigrant writers belonged to the sixties generation. Most emigrants formed like writers during the Khrushchev "thaw", they condemned the personality cult of Stalin and called for a return to "Leninist living standards." One could talk about previously closed topics like the GUAG, totalitarianism and the true price of military victories. But in the mid-1960s, ideological censorship began to intensify. Freedom was restricted. The persecution and arrests began. Many dissidents were referred to forced labor. The dissident movement and the Cold War caused many people to voluntarily or forcefully leave the country. Although the authorities imposed big restrictions on traveling abroad. A lot of famous writers, artists and scientists were among those who had to leave their homeland. Among them: Aksyonov, Dovlatov, Brodsky, Vishnevskaya, Rostropovich, Solzhenitsyn, Shemyakin, Lyubimov, Baryshnikov, Nuriev, Belousova, Protopopov and others.

The basis of their emigration was religious, national, socio-political factors. Representatives of the third emigrant wave almost did not find the language with their compatriots in emigration. Unlike A. Solzhenitsyn, he was always close to pre-revolutionary Russia. Dissidents actively discussed among themselves the future of Russia, they organized and opened a large number of emigrant newspapers and magazines. All these years in the Soviet press a fierce ideological campaign was waged against them. Emigrant writers were represented by anyone: traitors, CIA agents, people without honor and conscience. And even at the Moscow International Book Fair, books of dissident writers were seized. About one million people left the country. Most emigrants traveled to Israel, France, the United States, and the FRG; these were dissidents who were not Jews. After many years in exile, some of the dissidents returned to the country, and they were restored citizenship. The analysis of dissident emigration or emigration of creative intelligentsia is much more complicated. With their help, it was possible to widely advocate for human rights movements in the USSR, to publish thousands of documents, manuscripts, literary works banned in the Soviet Union and make them known to wide circles of the Western public. Thanks to representatives of third-wave emigration, foreign organizations were created to support the Russian opposition. The dissidents were used by Western intelligence agencies in the fight against the "Soviet regime and communist ideology." Many emigrants who loved Russia believed that they were fighting for its liberation.

The "third wave" of Russian emigration was due to political processes in the country.

2.4 Fourth wave (1990 - before the collapse of the USSR)

After the fall of the Iron Curtain, in conditions of democratization and renewal of all aspects of the life of Soviet society, emigration from the Soviet Union increased sharply. According to the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs in 1990, more than 450 thousand people left the country. A significant outflow of the population in a relatively short period of time was called the “fourth wave”.

This “perestroika” wave is leaving the Russian homeland forever. This wave is often called economic emigration. The intense flow of fourth-wave immigrants is largely determined by the political instability in the country, which has broken up into independent states, some of which have bloody armed conflicts. Some emigrants leave the fatherland in connection with the deteriorating economic situation - in search of the free realization of their forces and abilities, worthy of paying for their work, new opportunities for creativity and entrepreneurship.

Four groups of emigrants can be distinguished:

a) the first group is the "elite" - 1% of well-known scientists who are offered laboratories and institutes abroad;

b) the second group - those who count on the help of relatives abroad;

c) the third group - those who themselves are looking for a job, while still at home;

d) the fourth group - those who leave on the principle of "no matter where, it will be even worse here."

About half of the emigrants get a job abroad. Most physicists left, followed by mathematicians, biologists, other representatives of the exact sciences, as well as doctors, linguists, musicians, ballet dancers. All of them are relatively easy to adapt in a new country. For economic reasons, Russia is leaving people who simply suffer from financial instability.

The fourth wave of emigration is the first voluntary wave of emigration after the revolution. Its distinctive feature is a clear geographic focus in the United States. Most of the “fourth wave” emigrants, who came from Odessa, Moldova, small Ukrainian towns and towns - people of low qualification, without knowledge of the language, preferred to settle together in the Brooklyn area, in New York, were settled as merchants, small servants. In such areas, which are weak analogues of the famous Chinese or Arab quarters of the capitals of the whole world, you can hardly hear the English language, but you will find various dialects of Russian, Jewish, and less often Ukrainian. Even the blacks living in these areas and the police on duty know a lot of Russian words. There are inhabitants of these areas on benches of boulevards and embankments, and mainly in restaurants with eloquent names: "Odessa", "Primorsky", "Moscow", "Caucasus". The atmosphere of these establishments was well conveyed by the correspondent of Moskovskiye Novosti: “He will be swept over by the elusive spirit of Soviet catering for those who yearn for their homeland; its indescribable taste in tobacco chicken and Stolichniy salad will moisturize the sky with tears (our cooks are from our culinary college); and when the ensemble, the Soviet VIA, breaks out and you don’t hear the neighbor (yes the clubs of cigarette smoke, not bring what you ordered, but cheat), then the feeling of the Motherland will squeeze the throat so, memories will flood ... In short - to those who are sorry (and who doesn’t feel sorry?) for his youth in Soviet Russia (and in what else, I wonder, did all of us have it?), we must go to any of two dozen Russian restaurants in Brighton ... "

In general, the history and life of Russia of the twentieth century can well be studied in restaurants of the Russian Diaspora - from the Parisian "Maxim" to the New York "Odessa" and "Caucasus". And not only in restaurants - in family structure, speech and psychology, habits, traditions, songs, Russian books. What is thrown into the garbage by heirs in Russia is most often carefully preserved in emigration. So Russian emigration is a repository and receptacle of past Russian life.

However, not all fourth-wave Russian immigrants nostalgic for taverns in the peculiar Russian-Jewish ghettos of America. A small, but very active and most qualified part - programmers, doctors, scientists - spreads across America (preferring campuses, laboratories, libraries, research centers in Washington, Boston, Seattle, New York) and working very hard, fit much more successfully into the new environment. This is not given immediately, many scientists, for example, in anticipation of the recognition (conversion) of their candidate or doctoral diploma received in Russia, get a job as sellers or dishwashers, accumulating social skills and experience of American life, learning a language, then they find work in a specialty and many within five to seven years make an energetic breakthrough, reaching a stable high official and financial position.

A feature of the fourth wave is that most emigrants left Russia for purely personal and voluntary choice. They retained citizenship, property and professional business relations; high intellectual level, "brain drain."

3. Emigration from modern Russia

Russia besides natural resources   supplies its most important strategic resource, people, to the international market. These are young and educated people, with a high level of income, aged 20 to 40 years. If earlier emigrants left Russia and sought to get abroad on economic, political reasons, then in our time they emigrate according to socio-psychological, spiritual factors; they are dissatisfied with the "quality of life", do not see opportunities for self-realization. In Russia, the mood for emigration indicates that people are simply tired. They do not bind themselves to the country, do not feel like masters of their own country.

The reasons why people decide to leave the territory of Russia forever - there are a great many. Nevertheless, specialists after a number of studies conducted, identify a number of basic motives that encourage people to emigrate from Russia.

One of the reasons forcing a person to decide to leave Russia is the banal lack of prospects for a better future. Any person is characterized by a desire for life in an ever-evolving society, which is moving with confidence in striving towards its well-being and prosperity. Emigration, in turn, gives each person a chance to save themselves and their relatives from constant pressure from the corrupt government, oppression of the most difficult conditions, characteristic, rather, not for a full life in a civilized society, but for survival in a primitive environment.

The emigration of women leads to a reduction in the population of Russia. Over the past 15 years, about 1 million women have left Russia. As a rule, women emigrants are young women aged 14 to 29 years. Many women work as nurses, do house cleaning, are in demand in the marital markets of Europe, the USA and Asia. The motivation for emigration of women consists of several factors: a difficult socio-economic situation, low level   earned pay, inability to find work, difficulties in professional implementation, discrimination by employers. A special role is played by the demographic imbalance prevailing in the Russian marriage market. In Russia, the number of women significantly exceeds the number of men. Therefore, the emigration of women from Russia has become widespread. Female emigration for Russia has serious negative consequences in the current demographic situation.

Everyone knows that in Russia it is extremely difficult to legally become the owner of their own honestly earned housing. Existing At The Moment public policy   in Russia, according to many, it was created solely to exacerbate the already difficult problems of the population. Unfortunately, we have to admit that even a mortgage is, in fact, a ghostly and unrealistic chance to find a roof over your head.

The gradual but sure degradation of society, the inability to raise and fully educate your child, the steady increase in crime and corruption by the authorities, the decline and actual death of science, as such - all these factors, one way or another, encourage a person to emigrate from Russia.

An additional motive for making such a decision is the fact that in recent years, more and more representatives of the most significant categories of the population have left Russia: scientists, promising students, experienced professionals in various fields of activity. Most young people - ambitious boys and girls - seek marriage with a civil (citizen) of a foreign state with the same goal - to leave the territory of Russia forever. It is easy to guess that with the ever-increasing number of emigrating Russians - after an nth amount of time in the country, there will be practically no representatives of a cultural and progressive society, intelligentsia. Those few who nevertheless dare to remain opposed to the existing injustice will sooner or later find themselves suppressed - either by the authorities, or representatives of the criminal world, or representatives of a degraded society.

Naturally, the most attractive for emigrants are highly developed countries and states: Canada, Germany, USA, Australia, England, etc. But, given that it is quite difficult for an emigrant to obtain citizenship in these countries, many people pay attention to options such as Greece, Italy, Spain - countries where skilled labor is constantly required. Of particular note is the fact that in these countries, many convenient programs are being implemented that are aimed specifically at the category of emigrants - with the goal of greatly facilitating the process of their adaptation to new conditions.

An incomparably high standard of living, reliable protection of civil rights, endless opportunities for raising children and their own realization of themselves as individuals are just a tiny part of the arguments in favor of considering the decision to emigrate from Russia worthy and justified.

"Brain drain", the departure of the middle class - this is a very serious and dangerous trend. If it is not broken in the near future, then it will negatively affect further fate   Of Russia. The country expects stagnation in science-intensive sectors of the economy. In Russia, there may be a shortage of personnel with higher education, since now there is already a shortage of personnel in primary and secondary education. All this contributes to the flow of migrants into the country. Which will lead to intellectual losses in Russia.

Conclusion

International migration of the population and labor resources is becoming an important factor in the economic, social and demographic development in the world economy of many countries. On the economic and political life   Russia is ambiguously affected by migration processes. Both positively and negatively, for example, an adverse event -   intellectual emigration. A constant increase in emigration is a characteristic feature of international migration.

Bibliography

Pavel Polyan. Emigration: who and when left Russia in the 20th century // Russia and its regions in the 20th century: territory --   resettlement --   Migration / Ed. O. Glezer and P. Polyana. --   M: OGI, 2005. --   S. 493-519

Zatsepina   O.S., Ruchkin A. B. Russians in the USA: Public Organizations of Russian Emigration in the XX-XXI Centuries --   New York: RACH-C PRESS, 2011. --   290 s --   ISBN 978-0-9793-4641-5

L.   Bugaev. The mythology of emigration: geopolitics and poetics // Outside. Intellectual emigration in Russian culture of the 20th century. Frankfurt am Main. --   Peter Lang, 2006, p. 51-71

Ryazantsev   S.V., Tkachenko M.F. Labor migration from Russia and the Russian labor diaspora. - Stavropol: LLC “Data World”, 2006

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In the middle of the XIX century. there was practically no emigration from Russia to the USA. In 1851, one Russian emigrant arrived in America, in 1852 - two, and in 1853 - three. For the first time, the number of officially registered Russian citizens who arrived in the United States as immigrants reached 1 thousand in 1872.

During the 70s, the number of emigrants from Russia grew and in 1880 amounted to 5 thousand people. Among the total mass of emigrants from other European countries, Russian emigration was insignificant, averaging 1.7% over a decade. However, most of them consisted of Poles, Jews and Mennonite Germans.

Various reasons forced the subjects of the Russian Empire to emigrate to the United States. Some sought to gain unpopulated land to create their own economy, others escaped from political and religious persecution, others were not satisfied with the military reform, which provided for universal military service. Among the emigrants were criminals who fled from places of detention.

The events of the 60s - the American Civil War, the abolition of serfdom in Russia and the liberation of Negro slaves in the USA, mutual visits of naval squadrons - increased the interest of Russians and Americans to each other and opened a more active strip in the relationship of national cultures.

The wide interest of Russian society in the overseas republic is evidenced by a large number of scientific articles published during the 1970s in the journals Sovremennik, Patriotic Notes, Vestnik Evropy, Delo, Slovo, etc. There were many articles devoted to the political and economic situation of the country, the labor issue and emigration.

A significant group of Russian scientists, industrialists and specialists visited the United States in connection with the international exhibition in Philadelphia, dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the American Republic.

In the 70s, compared with the previous decade, the number of Russians who in one form or another left travel notes from a short visit or more or less long stay in the United States sharply increased. Among them, M.D. Butina, V.K. Gaines, N.P. Ilyin, A. Lapukhin, N. Slavinsky, etc. They helped expose legends and myths about the United States. In their letters and travel notes, they wrote about the hardships faced by compatriots across the ocean. Russian writer N.E. Slavinsky, who visited the United States, wrote in his notes: “Instead of the promised land, the expected benefits, a difficult struggle for existence, a series of calamities, and minutes of despair begin at the very beginning. "Without funds, without special information, without knowledge of the local language, sometimes without the right to resort to the only help - the representative of our government - what can be done, how to live, how to get out of bed at first?” .

The largest group of immigrants from Russia in the 70s was the Mennonite - the German sectarians who settled back in the XVIII century. in the Volga provinces (Saratov, Samara) and in the southern part of Ukraine (in the region of Odessa, Berdyansk, Kherson, Mariupol). As soon as it became known about the preparation of military reform, they appealed to the Russian and American authorities with a request to allow moving to the United States due to the fact that universal military service would deprive them of the benefits that exempted them from bearing military service.

After lengthy motions, several thousand Mennonites received government permission to leave and began to move in large groups to the United States. The US envoy to St. Petersburg told the Department of State that by May 1874, 400 Mennonite families were determined to leave for the United States and expressed a desire to settle in Kansas, Dakota, or Minnesota. The first settlement of "Russian Germans" was founded in Kansas. The following lots of emigrants settled in Nebraska, Dakota, Minnesota, where they engaged in the cultivation of wheat, sugar beet, as well as cattle breeding and subsequently became one of the most successful farmers groups in the western states. The Mennonites chose Lincoln, the main city of Nebraska, as their cent. The most difficult, dirty and low-paid work in the city was assigned to these immigrants.

After a series of failures in the Atlantic cities of the USA, a certain part of Russian emigrants moved to the West and settled on the Pacific coast, concentrating around the Russian diocese. This diocese was formed from an Alaskan group of Russian colonists, many of whom, after the sale in 1867, Alaska moved to San Francisco. Here in the early 70s, a Russian church and schools were built.

A small number of Russian immigrants managed to get to uninhabited places in the West, where you could still get a land plot - homestead. N.P. Ilyin, one of the Russian emigrants who spent six months in the United States and returned to Russia, reported in 1876 that the majority of “our compatriots who were in poverty in New York due to a lack of work sought by all means to achieve their once-planned goal - to establish their own farm somewhere inside the country. "

At the end of the XIX century. The anti-Semitism policy of the tsarist government caused the mass emigration of Russian Jews to the United States, and also led to the emergence of a “passport conflict”, which amounted to the reluctance of official Petersburg to recognize the passports of American citizens of the Jewish faith and the desire to equalize their rights with Russian Jews when visiting Russia. In the early 80s, this national-religious issue attracted the attention of American society in connection with the Jewish pogroms that swept the southern and southwestern provinces of the Russian Empire. The pages of American newspapers were full of articles condemning the policy of anti-Semitism, and in New York and Philadelphia, in February and March 1882, crowded rallies were held in sympathy with the victims of lawlessness and arbitrariness.

In turn, the Jewish community of the United States stepped up its activities in response to the growing emigration from the Russian Empire, causing more and more concern on the part of American society and the Washington administration. These settlers were not like the “old” immigrants of German descent and their American co-religionists. They were mostly poor, settled in the ghettos of large port cities and could cause social tension. In addition, the massive nature of emigration called into question the possibility of Americanization.

The Jewish community, which helped visitors to settle in a new place, sounded the alarm, fearing that a rush of beggars, noisy and orthodox fellow believers from the Russian Empire would damage its reputation and national identity, as well as cause increased anti-Semitism in the United States. New Jewish immigration did indeed make a significant contribution to the spread of anti-Semitic prejudice.

In addition, Russian-Jewish emigrants came to the center of attention of the participants in the sociopolitical struggle that unfolded in the United States between restrictionists who advocated restricting mass immigration to the country and relying on the theory of Anglo-Conormism and liberal immigration law advocates appealing to the theory of the “melting pot” .

At that time, the doctrine of US Secretary of State D. Blaine was born, which had done a lot to solve the problem through diplomatic negotiations. The “Blaine Doctrine” essentially meant that the American side would abandon vigorous activity until the time when the Russian authorities did not recognize the equal rights of the actual Russian Jews.

Having taken such a position, the American administration for the long year has withdrawn from participation in resolving the "passport issue", preferring to solve only certain problems that periodically arise in this connection with one or another American citizen of Jewish origin.

A similar position was taken with respect to the policy of the autocracy. Until the beginning of the 20th century. US officials avoided any idea of \u200b\u200bPetersburg regarding the situation of Jews - Russian subjects, for they were unambiguously qualified by the Russian side as "interference in the internal affairs of a sovereign state."

Thus, realizing the futility of attempts to force the Russian government to change the legal status of both Russian and American Jews within the empire, the US administration chose not to aggravate the situation and maintain traditionally good relations with its potential ally and partner in Eurasia.

This situation remained until the end of the 19th century, i.e. until a new social force entered the political arena of the United States, whose interests also affected the sphere of US-Russian relations. This social force was the Jewish national movement, which had by that time turned into a powerful domestic political factor capable of influencing the American administration.

In pre-revolutionary Russian legislation, emigration as a legal concept was absent. Russian citizens were forbidden to change citizenship. Those who violated the law, regardless of the class, were waiting for an eternal exile to Siberia and the loss of property. The fate of the waves of Russian emigration from the Middle Ages to the end of the twentieth century was traced by the historian Yaroslav ZVEREV. Emigrants leave the boat on Ellis Island (New York State), where in the 1910-1930s there was the largest filtration center for emigrants from Europe. Today there is a museum of immigrants!

In medieval Russia, the ability to change one's place of residence depended on his estate and economic status. The power of a medieval state, the very stability of an agrarian society was determined by the amount of land and the number of people inhabiting this land. However, Russia was notable for its underpopulation: there was a lot of free land, but there weren’t enough people to cultivate it. So instead of emigration, the territory of the principalities actually expanded to the previously unoccupied territories of the northeast, where people flocked from the south, frightened by nomad raids and attracted by relative security.

Along with the displacement of the agricultural population, people of the military estate, princely retinues, also moved. For them, the basis of existence was service to the princes, and the change of residence did not present such a shock as for a burdened stock, cattle and seeds of a plowman.

At the beginning of the XIV century, military people left the southern principalities devastated by the Mongol conquerors and moved to the north-east - to Moscow or the north-west - to the lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. It was not a political emigration - they spoke Russian in Lithuania, Orthodox Church   for a long time was not persecuted, and the Chernigov or Bryansk warriors did not feel political connection with Moscow. On the other hand, noble political immigrants came from Lithuania to Russia - the famous Dovmont, who was defeated in the struggle for power in Lithuania and found a place in Pskov, or Andrei, Dmitry and Vladimir Olgerdovichi, sons of the Grand Duke of Lithuania.

A new situation arises in the 15th century as the unification of Russian lands and the formation of the Moscow state. If earlier a service man could leave the service in due time and “move off” to another prince, now only one sovereign remained in Russia - grand Duke   Moscow and all Russia. The Muscovite sovereign claimed power over all the possessions of the Rurikovich and perceived the departure of his subjects as the direct competitor as a betrayal. For princes coming from recently annexed lands, this attitude provoked an internal protest.

The situation escalated in the middle of the 16th century, when Ivan the Terrible began to strengthen tsarist power by despotic methods, and aristocrats, accustomed to personal freedom, turned into slaves, who at any moment could be tortured and executed together with their family by the will of the sovereign. Some of them could not stand it and fled to hostile Lithuania, saving their lives from an imaginary or real threat. It was to Lithuania that the future impostor and former nobleman Grigory Otrepiev fled, who unsuccessfully enrolled in the slaves to the defeated Romanov boyars.

Another direction of emigration was southern. If in the XI-XV centuries in the southern Russian steppes the Polovtsian and then the Horde khans reigned supreme, then in the XV century with the fall of the Horde on the Don there appeared settlements of Cossacks - people who spoke Russian, but did not recognize the authorities of Moscow. Those who flocked to the Cossack settlements on the Don were those who did not want to recognize the government of the state, the ruined service people and the peasants who could not withstand taxes. On the Don and Volga, a special culture of half-immigrants was formed - people who left Russia but did not want to lose touch with it. However, these were not people who wished to leave their homeland forever - they were just looking for a better share away from the authorities.

In the XVII century, a steady stream of emigration was generated by a church schism. There was not much difference for the persecuted Old Believer who exactly deprives him of the old faith - the Tsar of Moscow, the Polish King or the Turkish Sultan. On the contrary, in a state hostile to the tsar, he could count on a more favorable reception as an oppositionist. In 1685, a group of Old Believers priests founded the Vetka settlement in Belarusian Polesie, under the rule of the Polish king. The branch served as the center of gravity of the Old Believer emigration and turned into a 40 thousandth city.

After the defeat of Vetka by Russian troops in 1764, part of the Old Believers moved from it even further, to the limits of Austrian Empire. Even earlier, part of the Old Believers went to Moldova and the Danube, under the arm of the Turkish Sultan.

In 1708, fleeing the tsar’s wrath, the Don Cossacks-Nekrasovites, participants in the defeated uprising of K. Bulavin, went to Turkey. They settled first on the Kuban, and then on the Danube next to the Old Believers Lipovans.

In 1709, also under the rule of Turkey and the Crimean Khan, the Zaporozhye Cossacks who supported the rebellious hetman I. Mazepu passed. Then part of the Cossacks returned, but in 1775 Catherine II finally abolished Sich, and a significant part of the Cossacks also fell under the power of the Sultan, who settled them on the Danube. Some of these Cossacks returned to Russia during the victory campaign of Kutuzov in 1811-1812, another part - in 1828.

Along with the “grassroots” religious emigration, there was an emigration of representatives of the upper strata of society. However, for them the situation was complicated by the fact that, in contrast to the Old Believers who placed themselves outside Russian society, the nobles were obliged to serve the sovereign, and the decree on the liberty of the nobility did not change much here. Emigration was forever forbidden. For going abroad and even for marriage with a foreigner, it was required to obtain the permission of the emperor. The nobleman was obliged to return to Russia after the expiration of a five-year period, if he stayed abroad, and the “defector” was considered as a traitor, his possessions were confiscated. Therefore, in most cases, such actual emigration took the form of a temporary trip: this is how Count A. G. Orlov, fleeing from the wrath of Paul I, left. In his case, the trip was temporary, and after the change of reign Orlov returned to Russia.

A special form of emigration was the permitted non-return of Russian diplomats: for example, after the resignation, the Russian ambassador S.R. Vorontsov lived in London for many years, and A.K. Razumovsky in Vienna.

If in Europe those who chose a “cultural way of life” settled down, then people went to the New World who wanted to start life from scratch in a new young world without serfdom and conventions of the old society - this is what he represented in the descriptions of a few travelers and art literature XIX   century. But there were few such emigrant Russians. When in 1856, Colonel I.V. Turchaninov decided to start a new life in the United States, he did not submit a letter of resignation, but simply did not return from abroad, and he was formally expelled from service only after two years of absence.

However, even up to the middle of the 19th century, the number of people arriving in Russia invariably exceeded the number of people leaving Russia. And only after the reforms of 1861 did emigration become mass. By its nature, its main part was labor or economic. In the years 1861-1915, 4.3 million people left Russia with its agrarian overpopulation: peasants, artisans and laborers. True, the vast majority of pre-revolutionary emigrants themselves were foreign nationals, mainly immigrants from Germany, Persia, Austria-Hungary and Turkey. And the majority of emigrants did not leave Russia within its current borders, but from the western provinces - Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, the Baltic countries.

The First World War led to a sharp decline in international migrations (at the same time, internal migrations increased sharply, which is primarily associated with the flows of refugees and evacuated). Immediately after the October Revolution (1918-1922), mass emigration (from 1.5 to 3 million people) of the most diverse social groups of the Russian population began, from which some were forced.

The next stage of emigration from Russia (1948-1989 / 1990) is the emigration of the period cold warwhen about 1.5 million people left. We traveled mainly to Germany, Israel and the United States.

In 1991, President of the USSR Gorbachev passed a law on the procedure for entry and exit of Soviet citizens from the USSR, and from that moment, in fact, for the first time in Russian history, emigration became legal. By its nature and motivation, it is similar to the global one and is determined primarily by the economic factor: job search, desire to improve the quality of life.