Extermination of wolves. Errors in combinations of homogeneous members. Training of hunters for the extermination of wolves and persons
1. It is wrong to use a neutral style of speech as homogeneous members incomparable (substantially heterogeneous) concepts, for example: blushed from embarrassment and from fast walking; in comparison with eternity and Mont Blanc. Similar combinations are used in fiction as a special stylistic device (creating a comic effect, individualizing the speech of the narrator or character, etc.), for example: During the night, he almost killed me three times, either with fear or with his feet (Herzen); ...Girls and lackeys with candles and joyful faces ran out onto the entrance (L. Tolstoy); Lev Savvich Turmanov, a common man with capital, a young wife and a serious bald spot, once played vint (Chekhov) at a friend’s name day.
2. The source of the error may be the lexical incompatibility of one of the homogeneous members with the common word in the sentence, for example: during the debate, a number of proposals and comments were made (comments are not “made”, but made).
3. Specific and generic concepts are not combined as homogeneous members, for example: “The grocery store has a large selection of cakes, confectionery, fruits and wines” (cakes are a type of confectionery).
4. The list of homogeneous members should not include crossing concepts, i.e. concepts that partially coincide in their logical scope, for example: “There were journalists, writers, tourists in the holiday home” (obviously, it was meant that journalists and writers were not tourists and vice versa, but such a combination cannot be considered justified). But the combination international festival youth and students has taken hold and corresponds to the stylistic norm.
5. Constructions in which the controlled word can be classified into different rows of homogeneous members are stylistically unsuccessful, for example: “Training hunters for the extermination of wolves and the persons responsible for carrying out this event” (we are, of course, talking about the training of hunters and other persons for the specified goals, but the juxtaposition of the words “to exterminate wolves and persons...” is unfortunate). Wed. sentence from the biographical sketch appended to the “Complete Collection of Poems by N.A. Nekrasov" (ed. 1902): "From all over Russia, from its most distant parts, letters, poems, telegrams flocked to him, expressing deep sincere sympathy for him as a poet of people's sorrow, along with wishes for deliverance from illnesses and long life."
6. When combining homogeneous members in pairs, the principle of their ordered selection must be observed (based on contiguity, similarity, contrast - with a special stylistic task, but there should be no random combinations, for example: “These issues are covered in books and newspapers, lectures and brochures, reports and magazines” (follows: ... in books and brochures, newspapers and magazines, lectures and reports).
7. Some heterogeneous morphological categories, for example, noun and infinitive, do not combine as homogeneous members; Wed under the rubric: “Accepted obligations: 1) cost reduction; 2) increase labor productivity; 3) improve product quality (in all three cases the same form should have been used - either a noun or an infinitive).
Digressions are found in fiction as a technique of stylization to resemble colloquial speech or vernacular; for example: Expressing his pleasure that the boots turned out well, Mr. Golyadkin asked for tea, to wash and shave (Dostoevsky).
8. Each part of the comparative (double) conjunction is placed before the corresponding homogeneous member; changing this order usually leads to a violation of the stylistic norm, for example: “It is necessary not only to pay attention to the students’ knowledge, but also to their practical skills” (follows: It is necessary to pay attention not only to the students’ knowledge, but also to their practical skills).
Deviations from this rule are permissible in cases where one part of the comparative conjunction refers to the predicate, and the other to a member of the sentence, logically isolated and dependent on another predicate verb, synonymous with the first, for example: “The huge premises of the circus being built in Perm will be universal: here it will be possible to hold not only circus performances, but also large concerts, sport competitions, meetings, showing films”; “A university graduate must be a theoretically trained specialist who knows not only his specific narrow field of science, but also has good knowledge of the fundamental branches of science, as well as a number of other sciences.” Wed. with repeated conjunctions: ...In the distance, along the road, a cart or a car will pass (V. Panova) (with intonation-logical identification of homogeneous subjects).
Sometimes incorrect pairs of conjunctions are created: not only... and also (follows: not only... but also), as... and also (instead of: both... and), for example: “For short term Not only new schools, a hospital, but also a drama theater were built in the satellite city.”
Poorly located particle Not and union A in the sentence: “It is not the disease itself that is dangerous, but its consequences” (follows: It is not the disease itself that is dangerous, but its consequences).
9. If there is a generalizing word in a sentence, homogeneous members must agree with it in case. This provision is sometimes violated, for example: “Factual data is presented in various newspaper and journalistic genres: article, correspondence, essay” (homogeneous members should be put in the prepositional case).
The conversational character is of a displaced construction like: Noise, screams, laughter - this whole motley range of sounds filled the fairground (cf. the version with coordinated homogeneous terms: Noise, screams, laughter - all this motley range of sounds...)
10. Members of a sentence (in particular, participial and adverbial phrases) and subordinate clauses should not be combined as homogeneous syntactic elements. This provision is sometimes violated, for example: “Suspended coverings attached to screws are advisable and allow large spans to be covered”; “Those who spoke in the debate, without objecting to the main provisions of the report, however, consider it incomplete.”
It should be noted that not only verbally, but also in writing There are often cases of connection using coordinating conjunctions heterogeneous syntactic constructions - sentence members and subordinate clause(in artistic speech such a connection is used as a stylistic device), for example: The Emperor immediately remembered your name and that you were in Vyatka (Herzen); I see the ribbon on your neck and even how a curl on your left side has fallen onto your eyebrow (Leonov); I remember a trip to the Canterbury Music Hall and how I sat in a red plush chair and watched my father perform (Chaplin. My Autobiography. Translation). Wed. - from Dostoevsky: For a moment they almost forgot Nastasya Filippovna and that after all she was the mistress of her house; You ask about your faces and what I noticed in them.
Even more often observed in different styles is the combination as homogeneous members of a definition expressed by an adjective or participle, and a subordinate clause definitive sentence, for example: By Perm province there is an excellent wide road, well-trodden for a long time and which I had seen until that time only once in my life (Herzen).
The combination found among writers as homogeneous members of the participial and participial phrases is associated with the possibility of bringing their meanings closer in context, for example: The father, sighing and obviously embarrassed, very soon interrupted his speech... (L. Tolstoy); Touched by the sight of this beautiful group and not wanting to disturb the lovers, I wanted to pass them by (Kuprin).
1. The writer was concerned that no mistakes should slip through; He first read the proof himself, then gave it to the editor. 2. In the first text, the nouns are in in the required form, in the second - numerals. 3. The road is constantly being repaired. So it turns out: yesterday I was driving here, but today I can’t. 4. Cases of missing books in boarding schools are usually hushed up. Therefore, we will particularly focus on them. 5. Sometimes there is no sample essay in the class that can be read for everyone, so the best work should be kept by the teacher. 6. The greater the difference between languages, the more difficult it is to compile a dictionary. For example, compile a dictionary of French words in English language It is not as difficult (due to the significant similarity of languages and cultures) as compiling a dictionary of the Zulu language in English.
2. Determine in which sentences the homoform is used incorrectly. Correct the error.
1. Courage is not being rude to your mother or running away from home. 2. Sugar almost completely replaces honey in the Abkhazian diet. Therefore, they do not suffer from toothaches. 3. The food convoy was accompanied by a platoon of machine gunners. 4. The animal's jump preceded the shot. Turkin turned out to be a sharp shooter. The tiger fell heavily to the ground. 5. The patient was not allowed to walk around the room on the first day. 6. 1,400 athletes served 10 canteens.
3. Find the erroneous semantic connection between the words. Correct the error.
1. Andrei Bolkonsky believed that he would achieve fame while sitting not in an office, but on the battlefield. 2. The strike committee received an official proposal to submit its demands to the factory management in writing. 3. It was established that citizen Ivanova also made moonshine starter, which was in the fermentation stage. 4. Training has begun for hunters to exterminate wolves and for those in charge of the raid. 5. This plant has fermentation units, compressors, fermentors, boilers in which microbes grow, laboratories and trained personnel.
Brevity of speech
1. Among the phrases given below, find the following types: a) tautological combinations in which one of the words is redundant; b) phrases that are not tautological, but one of the words can be excluded to avoid redundancy; c) phrases in which not a single word can be excluded.
First baptism of fire, your autograph, significantly improve, make maximum use of hidden reserves, modern requirements, manufactured products, great efforts, further development, in this moment time, meeting for the first time, stepping back, first debut, new revival, in the month of March, unusual phenomenon, future perspective, a thousand people, to renew again, to multiply many times, a guiding thread, to lead on the final journey, a stumbling block, Railway, bosom friend, rising star, fall into despair, the main point, it is useless to disappear, to have a presentiment in advance, valuable treasures.
2. Indicate which word is missing.
1. The reader’s mistakes are unpleasant to hear. 2. A wheelbarrow carried scrap iron: an old primus stove, an old water tap, a flattened and unusable kettle. 3. This poem by Mayakovsky contains words newly created by the poet. 4. There can be no question that a person’s abilities are supposedly explained only by his heredity. 5. Suddenly Sophia loses consciousness. 6. Always calm, invariably correct, he stood out noticeably against the background of his class and enjoyed great authority among his classmates.
Purity of speech
Each time has its own heroes and its own symbols. End of the second millennium former USSR symbolizes the word “as if.” Moreover "as if-virus” has spread literally in the last two years. Nothing like this has ever happened before: just listen to recordings of radio broadcasts from past years or watch old movies. And now? Let's listen to the speech of our friends, acquaintances, relatives. At home and on public transport. On radio and television. In lessons at school, lectures at the institute, at scientific sessions, in stores. This is especially noticeable in TV talk shows, in programs where the main characters are talking heads, where there is a free exchange of opinions and spoken language is heard. “Hero of the Day”, “Rush Hour”, “Theme”, “Us”, “Field of Miracles” and numerous interviews. “As if” is a favorite phrase of representatives of various segments of the population: both highly educated and not so educated, artists, writers, engineers, politicians, officials, ordinary people. Even announcers, as soon as they move away from smooth, pre-written comments and try to improvise, immediately insert this word.
... What does this phrase reflect? It seems to me that this is a reflection of the instability, the uncertainty of the times in which we live, when nothing can be sure. Either we will have to look for a job, or not, or they will pay the salary, or not, either we live in capitalism, or in socialism, or maybe under war communism, either it will rain or snow. Everything in our life is unsteady, sometimes we rush in leaps and bounds, sometimes we stand rooted to the spot. Or maybe our rulers are now so delicate: they are afraid of offending the people and deliver bad news with a shy smile, inserting “as if” and leaving a loophole for retreat.
... Sigmund Freud argued that slips of the tongue in ordinary speech and slips in writing are not accidental, but reflect what a person is trying to hide. Perhaps the reason for such frequent use of the phrase “as if” lies in line with this concept. And that, it seems, we will begin to get rid of this weed word only when the situation in our society stabilizes and certain prospects appear for both a specific person and a specific company.
In the meantime, I suggest you play: after all, you can benefit from everything. Sit in front of the TV and count in which program people most often use this phrase: who, in connection with what and how many times they used it. As a result, it will be possible to derive the “as if” index: the amount of use of “as if” per unit of time. Why not? (They say that famous physicist, Academician Landau, by his own definition, was “beautiful” and developed a “city beauty index.” This index was expressed by dividing the number of beautiful women the academician met during his stay in a particular city by the total number of women he met there.) As a result, you can choose a “superkakbyst.” Come up with the “Golden Kakbyst” award.
As they say, “through the mouth of a child the truth speaks.” Recently I heard a little girl, drawing something on the melted spring snow, say: “This is like a dog, and this is like a cat running from her.” “Why is it like a cat?” - I asked. “But they’re not real, they’re make-believe,” the girl answered. Maybe our whole life is now a make-believe... (Nevskoe Vremya. 04/12/2007).
2. Read the sentences and comment on the use in them foreign words. Is it always justified? Correct the sentences.
1. It is necessary to collect the best ideas from all political forces, but not to make a conglomerate out of them, but to draw up an integral document that would be close to everyone.
2. The bestseller of the new season was the Max washing machine.
3. The editors' activities to clarify texts are limited by the loss of some manuscripts.
4. The winner of the tender was a consortium of Western and Russian banks, headed by CS First Boston. The image of RAO suffered seriously, as did the prestige of its main shareholder, the state.
5. One could cite armadas of figures characterizing the country’s economy...
Exercises for §3
1. Find the erroneous and correct semantic connection of the words.
Sample: “I watched with admiration the airplanes, the wonderful creation of passionate people, as they flew away to the east.”
OS of “people who were deleted”; PS by planes that were removed (OS is an erroneous semantic connection, PS is a correct semantic connection).
1. Andrei Bolkonsky believed that he would achieve fame by sitting not in an office, but on the battlefield (OS sitting on the battlefield; PS will achieve on the battlefield). 2. Please say a few words about the new ship for our readers (OS about the new ship for our readers; PS a few words for our readers). 3. Execute-| obligations for the supply of poultry meat and milk are also excluded (OS - ~ "poultry milk; PS for the supply of milk). 4. Tolstoy shows honest and courageous commanders and careerists (OS of honest and courageous careerists; PS shows careerists). 5. The strike committee received an official proposal to submit your demands to the factory management in writing (OS an official proposal in writing; PS to submit in writing 6. Sholokhov honestly and skillfully told us about this, as if he himself was there, in the novel “Virgin Soil Upturned” (OS). was there in the novel; PS told in the novel).
2. Underline two words (phrases) between which there is an erroneous connection. Connect its elements with a bow and a cross. Check the correctness of your decision, relying on the general patterns of semantic combination of words formulated above during initial perception.
1. And the cheerful boy Maxim, who had just graduated from school on a tourist package, came to this camp. 2. Pechorin wants to die in Persia, where he was heading in the second chapter, to lie in foreign sands. 3. Foreign critics admit that these characters in the novel do not express the author’s position, but this does not stop them from denigrating our reality. 4. No matter how hard you try, it is almost impossible to answer this question. 5. At the Rassvet collective farm, the effectiveness of rolling potato tops was taken into account by chief agronomist Volsky and researcher Troshin. 6. It was established that citizen Filippova also made moonshine starter, which was in the fermentation stage.
3. What unexpected, absurd meaning arises when perceiving the following poetic lines by novice authors? What caused the incorrect combination of words in each case?
1. Behind the central battle
Single-barrels are our friends.
2. I believe, like the dawn is clear,
You will come as spring comes.
3. Turning sharply, like an arrow,
A quick “Victory” slipped through.
(Example by I. L. Selvinsky)
4. Here the hanged man smears the house
Painter in the air.
(Example by N. A. Dobrolyubov)
5. Now I'm such a worker,
Whose historian will write down the trace?
(Example by V. M. Zhirmunsky)
4. Determine which of the three letter schemes each design belongs to.
1. Kutuzov, as L. Tolstoy showed, while on the battlefield, was most concerned about maintaining the morale of the soldiers. 2. The puppet theater concludes contracts for holding New Year's parties with the participation of Father Frost, the Snow Maiden, an accordion player and a puppet show. 3. Construction of a barn for 200 heads with silos has begun. 4. This idea is not new; M.V. also pointed this out. Lomonosov. 5. Consultations are held regularly, offices are equipped, visual aids are provided, and instruments are also prepared. 6. The carpenter made an oak shelf with four legs. 7. Starch is an insoluble carbohydrate in water. 8. This group, which includes pharmacologists and clinicians, has been purposefully studying the neurogenic mechanisms of damage to internal organs for two decades using the original method of pharmacological analysis.
5. Mentally eliminate the highlighted word. Watch how the connection between words changes in this place.
1. Soon N.K. Fedorov began his work on the chemistry of muscle, work that was destined to lead to major discoveries. 2. General theory parts of speech is necessary to create full-fledged scientific and educational grammars real languages, grammarians that intelligently take into account both the general and the particular in different languages. 3. Let's consider what errors occur in school essays, errors that should be considered unacceptable.
6. Underline the error signal (a word or phrase that adds clarity).
1. Dozens of students from educational institutions sent to work do not arrive at their destination. 2. Furmanov based the story “Chapayev” on the military operations of the Chapaev division in the Urals region, where he was appointed commissar. 3. Petya ran to open the gate, and, rounding a huge puddle along the curved road, the dog threw himself at his feet. 4. We will send you a ski for your left foot, which does not need lubrication. 5. At yesterday’s meeting the Laws on higher education, about border troops," which were being finalized.
Key. Error signal: 1. directed (meaning students, not educational institutions); 2. appointed as a commissioner; 3. dog, 4. in lubricant;5. under revision.
7. Eliminate the error by bringing together the elements of the correct semantic connection.
1. Chatsky talks about how one landowner exchanged his servants for three greyhound dogs, which more than once saved his life and honor. 2. More than one spacecraft has been launched into orbit with a person on board. 3. In what fairy tale did the father of his youngest daughter bring a feather from the city? 4. He told how Davydov organizes sowing work, trying to maintain the style of the novel. 5. The commission visited a boarding school teaching a number of subjects in English in the Kyiv region. 6. At the meeting, the issue of preparing tractors for sowing was discussed.
8. Indicate with a Y (bird) sign the place where you need to insert the word when eliminating an erroneous semantic connection using the “word insertion” method. To insert, select a word that has a suitable meaning.
1. We read a description of the fascist atrocities of Ilya Ehrenburg. 2. The entourage of this businessman included the criminal Brailovsky, who was caught stealing state property of the Kogans. 3. Training has begun for hunters to exterminate wolves and for those in charge of the raid. 4. On the left, in the corner, there is a small table with a TV, opposite a piano. 5. Subscription to newspapers of workers and employees is successful. 6. Who doesn’t remember Platon Karataev, this bright representative of the people, the Rostovs’ yard girl? 7. Inna Kudryavtseva went to work in the store. Here she was faced with an unfair attitude towards the work of her colleagues. 8. After repeated examination, the deceased could not be identified. 9. This plant has fermentation units, compressors, fermenters, boilers in which microbes grow, laboratories and trained personnel.
Key. In each case, a word is inserted between elements of an erroneous semantic connection. Let us recall that it is necessary to insert a word that does not change the general meaning of the sentence and at the same time eliminates the erroneous semantic connection. Possible corrections: 1. ...in the essay by Ilya Ehrenburg;. and caught; 3. and instructing persons; 4. s t o i t piano; 5. among workers and employees; 6. Who doesn’t remember the Rostovs’ courtyard girl? 7. from their colleagues; 8. and after re-examination; 9. The plant has laboratories and trained personnel.
9. Eliminate the erroneous semantic connection by replacing one of its elements with a synonym.
1. Criminal investigation officers arrived at the scene with dogs that were called to apprehend the criminals. 2. At the meeting, a resolution was adopted demanding the immediate transfer of landowners' land to the peasants without any redemption and increased taxation of capitalists. 3. Nikolai Brilev reached into the pocket of citizen Chesnokov in the Detsky Mir store, where he was caught. 4. The team headed by Trofimova did a good job, which expanded due to the people who came to clean.
Key. 1. ...called to apprehend criminals. 2. ...demanding that the landowners' land be immediately transferred to the peasants without any redemption and that the capitalists be subject to increased taxes. 3. ...and was caught in the act. 4. ...Trofimova’s brigade, which has become popular due to... As we can see, a replacement may entail the exclusion or rearrangement of some words.
10. Eliminate the erroneous semantic connection of words by dividing the sentence into two independent ones.
1. Instead of flying in formation, the planes took off one at a time, to save fuel, they headed straight to the shores of Japan (L. Groves). 2. A group of soldiers in protective caps appeared from the forest, shouting something. 3. The technical school invites engineers, a watchman, and a fireman to teach. 4. The best room was awarded with a player with new records and various household accessories. 5. The cause for which they are fighting cannot fail to win; having such defenders, the truth cannot but triumph. 6. Shepherd Nuriev filed an application for an incorrect deduction from his earnings for a shortage of sheep, which had been lying around for five months.
11 (summarizing). Determine in which sentences there is an erroneous semantic connection between words. Choose a way to eliminate it and suggest your option.
1. It was necessary to teach elementary cleaning techniques to students and schoolchildren. 2. He has a thin face, on which black eyes look especially large, and an angular figure. 3. We found a clearing in the forest. Around the dry wood for the fire as much as you want. 4. Stepan wanted in his soul to have such bulls only on his farm. 5. A competition has been announced for better job in history, in which high school students can take part. 6. The many different theories about the origin of the alphabet in modern science. 7. She endured all the torture, but did not betray her friends, like Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya. 8. Simultaneously with practical work, the expedition participants trained specialists in the fight against agricultural pests from the local population. 9. The situation with the bathhouse is the same on the second farm, which also stopped working this year. 10. Then they examined the suitcase with books, at the very bottom of which they found a photo card. 11. The laboratory receives materials for the study of animal diseases, cases of their mortality are studied through bacteriological analysis. 12. The interlocutors do not understand this phrase, which is completely clear to the reader, since these two meanings of the word do not differ in oral speech.
Exercises like those given provide operational development of the general technique of eliminating erroneous semantic connections between words and its meaningful assimilation. They actively develop stylistic thinking, since they model the writer’s activity in a typical, repetitive problematic situation written communication.
2. 2. 2. Logical speech. The most common mistakes.
Logicality refers to the communicative quality of speech, which involves a clear, precise and consistent statement. There are a number of rules at work here, the violation of which leads to the fact that our statement looks illogical.
Observe the law of identity: the subject of your statement must remain unchanged! Always remember what you are talking about and don’t “jump” from one to another. At first glance, this rule may seem unnecessary to you, but practice shows that this is not so. It often happens that when we start talking and remembering one example after another, we move so far away from topics of expression
Follow the law of contradiction, which states that two opposite statements cannot be true at the same time! In other words, don't contradict yourself. Fortunately, this is quite rare, so I won’t dwell on it in detail.
The most important law you must follow to make your speech sound logical is the law of sufficient reason. Simply put, always provide a sufficient number of arguments in favor of what you are talking about, otherwise your speech will not be a speech, but ordinary idle talk, or, if you like, verbiage. It is necessary to say a few words about what the arguments may be. Traditionally, they are divided into two types: arguments to the merits of the case and arguments to the person. Within the second, arguments to authority are distinguished (“so said Ivan Ivanovich” or “I will tell Ivan Ivanovich everything”); to the listener (“You think so too”); to pity (“I’m sick today, so I could be wrong”). Practice shows that for the listener, the most compelling and only compelling arguments are the arguments of the first type.
Arguments to a person do not reach the heart and mind of the listener, and sometimes can even irritate, especially in cases where the situation is official. So, the speech must be demonstrative and reasoned, and arguments must be given only on the merits of the case!
Now let’s talk about the mistakes that we make at the level of logical speech. Errors at the level of homogeneous sentence members.. My favorite example: “It was raining and two students, one was going to university, the other was wearing galoshes.” Here all the words require different meanings from the verb to go: precipitation, movement, direction of movement and the meaning of being shod with something. And secondly, words can be arranged in such a way that ambiguity arises. For example, Residents demanded elimination of problems and repairs (liquidation of repairs?); Preparation of hunters for the extermination of wolves and those responsible for carrying out this event (extermination of those responsible?). The same thing happens when we build a complex sentence using a pronoun that can replace several names in the previous sentence. For example, Afraid of a thunderstorm, the old woman hid her head under the pillow and kept it there until it ended (what ended: the old woman, the pillow or the thunderstorm?); Slalomists competed on two tracks, one of them was five meters long with differences of one and a half to two meters (what: the track or the slalom skier?).
Fuzzy differentiation of the concept. This error is possible when you do not make a clear distinction between two concepts related to the same phenomenon.
For example, It is bad when all cinemas in a city show the same film title. As we can see, the speaker does not distinguish between the concept of the title of the film and the film itself. As a result, perception of the meaning of the phrase is difficult. So, consistency helps make our speech clear, precise and understandable to the interlocutor.
2. 2. 3. Expressiveness and effectiveness of speech.
I decided to combine consideration of such communicative qualities as expressiveness and effectiveness of speech into a single point, since these concepts are very close in the system of communicative qualities of speech. The effectiveness of speech is impossible without its expressiveness, which in turn is based on knowledge of speech technique. However, without using the rules of speech technique, it is impossible to talk about any impact of such speech on the listener or audience. Thus, expressiveness of speech can be considered as the main component of effective speech.
Expressive speech is speech that can maintain attention and arouse the listener’s (or reader’s) interest in what is said (written).
What determines the expressiveness of speech?
There is no need to talk about any great impact of speech if the speaker speaks indistinctly, in a hoarse, barely audible voice, pronounces words unclearly, i.e. does not have basic speech technique. Mastery of speech technique is the foundation of speech culture.
The components of speech technique are diction, breathing, voice.
Every word, and every sound in a word, must be pronounced clearly - this is the main requirement of diction.
The outstanding theater figure K.S. Stanislavsky spoke very figuratively about the impression that poor diction makes on listeners: “A word with substituted letters seems to me... a person with an ear instead of a mouth, with an eye instead of an ear, with a finger instead of a nose. A word with a crumpled beginning is like a person with a flattened head. A word with an unspoken ending reminds me of a man with amputated legs... When words merge into one shapeless mass, I remember flies caught in honey.” [K.S. Stanislavsky. An actor's work on himself, 1955]
Fuzzy, sloppy, illiterate speech is unpleasant in everyday life. It insults our hearing, our aesthetic sense. But it is already completely unacceptable for a lecturer.
Disadvantages of diction (unless they are associated with some shortcomings of the speech apparatus) are the result of a bad habit ingrained since childhood of speaking “lazyly”, carelessly, sluggishly pronouncing words. Therefore, in order to eliminate these shortcomings, you need to control how you speak, when giving lectures, speaking at meetings, in everyday life (whether you are not crumpling words, not “swallowing” endings, not muttering words through clenched teeth, etc.).
For a speaker, the voice, its timbre, and shades are important. The strength of the voice is not decisive, but it should be borne in mind that the audience (listening) is tired and put to sleep by both a very quiet and loud voice. The tone of speech is important. The speech should not be arrogant, instructive.
The semantic perception of speech largely depends on the tempo of speech. When defining perception as a counter-process of thinking, we must take into account two points: the listener needs to have time to comprehend the incoming information and remember the main provisions of what is being said.
According to experimental data, the optimal condition for easy-to-understand speech is an average rate of pronunciation. The presentation of complex material dictates a slow pace of speech, while addressing facts, phenomena associated with sensory experience, and life associations requires a relatively accelerated pace. Too slow a speech rate is perceived poorly. The text does not sound in phrases, but in individual words.
Particular attention should be paid to the expressive role of intonation (pitch, strength, timbre, rate of speech, pauses). There is a hypothesis that intonation precedes language. According to experimental data, a child masters intonation patterns (for example, expressions of pleasure, anger) between the ages of six months and one year, and much later masters the vocabulary and grammar of his native language. In communication, intonation serves as a concretizer of the meaning of a statement in a certain situation. Thanks to it, we understand, for example, that the good words spoken to us actually contain a threat, and a neutral official phrase means goodwill.
Intonation allows you to emphasize the logical and emotional significance of a statement. The brighter a person’s emotional responsiveness, the richer his speech is in melodic expressiveness. Speech devoid of proper melodic accents is insensitive. Here it is impossible to give ready-made recipes related to the use of intonation in Everyday life. There is only one rule to remember: intonation is a mirror of our emotional life; the culture of feelings and emotional relationships is inextricably linked with the culture of intonational design of statements.
Pauses are important for intonation. Smooth speech sometimes gives the impression of being memorized, and therefore may not be liked by listeners, and some speakers use recall pauses to create the impression of extemporaneous speech. Logical pauses, as mentioned above, help clarify the meaning of the statement.
In order for speech to be expressive, proverbs, sayings, aphorisms, as well as tropes are used: metaphors, comparisons, hyperbole, epithets. However, it should be remembered that these visual means should not be abused.
2. 2. 4. Appropriateness of speech.
Relevance is a special communicative quality of speech, which, as it were, regulates in a specific language situation content of other communicative qualities. In communication conditions, depending on the specific speech situation, the nature of the message, the purpose of the statement, one or another communicative quality can be assessed differently - positively or negatively. For example, a writer will not be able to create “local color”, convey speech features persons of a certain profession, strictly following the requirements of purity of speech, which means that in this case, not compliance with the requirements of purity of speech, but, on the contrary, their violation will be positively assessed.
The appropriateness of speech is understood as strict compliance of its structure with the conditions and objectives of communication, the content of the information expressed, the chosen genre and style of presentation, and the individual characteristics of the author and addressee.
Relevance is a functional quality of speech; it is based on the idea of the target setting of the utterance. A.S. Pushkin formulated the functional understanding of the appropriateness of speech as follows: “True taste does not consist in the unconscious rejection of such and such a word, such and such a turn of phrase, but in a sense of proportionality and conformity.”
In the linguistic literature of recent years, it is customary to distinguish stylistic, contextual, situational and personal-psychological appropriateness or appropriateness due to: a) extralinguistic and b) intralinguistic factors. In our opinion, it is not entirely advisable to distinguish between appropriateness determined by extra- and intralinguistic factors: these concepts are closely related to each other, forming an inextricable unity. Extralinguistic factors determine the actual linguistic ones. It is practically difficult to distinguish between contextual and situational relevance. These are also largely interdependent concepts. This manual distinguishes between stylistic, situational-contextual and personal-psychological appropriateness (taking into account extra- and intralinguistic factors).
1) Style appropriateness.
Each functional style, as noted above, is characterized by its specific patterns of selection, organization and use of linguistic means, and the question of the use of a particular linguistic unit, its relevance (or inappropriateness) in each style is resolved differently. So, if in official business and scientific styles, as a rule, common, neutral and bookish styles are used language means, then in journalism with a special stylistic task, colloquial elements can also be used (in within limited limits- even slang-colloquial ones). For example:
“Recently, another “cab driver” was strangled in Kozlov Lane in Minsk. For what? To purchase another batch of alcohol. Having cleaned
pockets victims, killers calmly continued feast(from newspapers)."
The idea of appropriateness has its own characteristics linguistic fact in the style of fiction. Deviations from the norms of general literary language are permissible here. The main criterion for their relevance in a particular work is the validity of the author’s goal setting, functional expediency. Since the use of linguistic means in works of fiction is subordinated to the author’s intention, the creation of an artistic image, and the function of aesthetic impact, a wide variety of linguistic means may be appropriate.
2) Situational-contextual relevance
Situational-contextual appropriateness should be understood as the use of linguistic material depending on the communication situation, style of expression, and speech environment of the linguistic unit. The main criterion for situational-contextual appropriateness is the situation and tasks of verbal communication. “You cannot speak the same words, the same sentences with a five-year-old child and with an adult: it is necessary to select linguistic means that correspond to the child’s capabilities and the level of development of an adult; you cannot get by with the same set of linguistic means when creating lyric poem and a novel in prose." In support of this idea, B.N. Golovin compares two excerpts from "The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish" and the poem " Bronze Horseman"A.S. Pushkin. The first is characterized by colloquial and everyday linguistic elements, the second - literary and bookish. Linguistic means that are appropriate in one work are inappropriate in another. Even within the same work, depending on the author’s target setting, they are used different linguistic means. Let’s compare two excerpts from the first part of A.S. Pushkin’s poem “The Bronze Horseman”:
1. Over gloomy Petrograd
November breathed the autumn chill.
Splashing with a noisy wave
To the edges of your slender fence,
Neva was tossing around like a sick person
Restless in my bed.
It was already late and dark;
The rain beat angrily against the window, And the wind blew, howling sadly.
2. Evgeny sighed heartily here
And he daydreamed like a poet:
"Marry? Me? Why not?
It’s hard, of course;
But well, I'm young and healthy
Ready to work day and night;
I’ll arrange something for myself
Shelter humble and simple
And in it I will calm Parasha.
Perhaps a year or two will pass -
I’ll get a place, Parashe
I will entrust our family
And raising children...
And we will live, and so on until the grave
We'll both get there hand in hand, and our grandchildren will bury us..."
The first passage uses book words, literary-book definitions, participial phrases and other linguistic elements that are clearly inappropriate in the second passage.
The choice of language means is determined by the topic, genre, and the author’s target setting. The addressee of the speech is also of no small importance: the author must clearly understand who he is addressing his speech to (the age of the addressee, his social status, cultural and educational level).
Situational-contextual appropriateness is closely related to stylistic. IN general outline it is determined by the latter. However, in specific conditions of communication, it does not coincide with it: linguistic means that are not characteristic of a certain style, in a certain context, in a certain situation, turn out to be appropriate, even necessary, the only possible ones. So, for example, the image of grandfather Shchukar in the novel “Virgin Soil Upturned” by M. Sholokhov would be incomplete and unrealistic without dialecticisms in the speech of this character. It is stylistically appropriate to use jargon in speech former criminal Zavarzin (V. Lipatov’s novel “And It’s All About Him...”), when he loses faith that there is no return to the past: - I got dirty, - Zavarzin quietly admitted, - however I'll drink, What didn’t throw Stoletov onto the iron.
As a stylistic device, as already noted, alogisms, bringing together stylistically contrasting and semantically distant lexemes, expanding the boundaries of lexical compatibility, lexical and syntactic repetitions, etc. are widely used. However, we should not forget that such use of linguistic material should always be stylistically motivated.
Stylistically unmotivated use of linguistic means leads to a violation of the appropriateness of speech. A violation of appropriateness is the use of stylistically marked units without taking into account their functional and emotionally expressive coloring, the unmotivated destruction of the unity of style. For example, the unjustified use of words and phrases of the official business style (clericalisms) in other styles, the use of anachronisms (transfer of words and set phrases from one era to another), the replacement of a literary linguistic element with a colloquial one, etc. A violation of the criterion of appropriateness is also the oversaturation of speech (especially artistic speech) with special terms. This can be confirmed by an excerpt from N. Voronov’s novel “The Top of Summer”:
I breathed fur on the outer drive. It was in working position: the oblong steel core was pulled eye-deep into the weight-like body. When we press the button on the remote control to turn on the oil valve, we apply voltage to the solenoid. The magnetic field created in the solenoid sucks the core into itself. The suction drives the drive mechanism and the oiler turns on. The retracted position of the core is secured with a latch. When turning off the oil valve, we press the adjacent button on the remote control, a magnetic field appears in the side solenoid and pushes out the small core. He hits the latch pawl, the latch disengages. A tightly compressed spring pulls up a large core.
Technical, professional terms, the meaning of which is unclear to a non-specialist, do not perform any aesthetic function in the given context; they are functionally impractical, and therefore inappropriate.
3) Personal and psychological appropriateness presupposes internal politeness, tact, responsiveness, a caring attitude towards the interlocutor, the ability to think in time about his mood, take into account his individual psychological characteristics, the ability to find the right word in a given situation, the necessary intonation, contributes to the establishment of correct relationships interlocutors is the key to people’s moral and physical health. A rude, callous word, indifferent, mocking intonation offends and insults a person, can cause psychological conflict, severe mental trauma, and become a social evil. An example of this is the fact described by the writer B. Vasilyev in the story “Court and Case”. Participant of the Great Patriotic War! war, Anton Filimonovich Skulov killed a young guy, Veshnev, with a shot from a hunting rifle. The shot came immediately after Veshnev cursed Skulov’s late wife. “This is not swearing, this is an action, because immediately after these words there was a shot. I emphasize, immediately,” is how the second assessor assesses this fact.
The identification of different types of relevance is somewhat arbitrary. The stylistic appropriateness is clearly visible. Situational-contextual and personal-psychological relevance are closely intertwined with each other, as well as with the concept speech etiquette(in a broad sense), implying tact, kindness, politeness, honesty, nobility in the speech behavior of communication participants.
2. 2. 5. Accessibility of speech.
Accessibility of speech is the quality of public speaking, which consists in the fact that the speaker selects facts, arguments, speech means with maximum consideration of the capabilities of speech perception in a specific audience.
The level of accessibility as a communicative quality must be determined by the speaker each time, in each specific case, depending on the audience at which the speech is directed, so that it is most correctly perceived by the listener. In this case, one should take into account the age, level of education, social status, psychological and emotional state of the audience, etc. For example. The same speech cannot be equally well understood when read at school and at the institute, or a speech replete with many professional terms will not be fully understood by the average listener, etc. The above examples relate only to differences in age composition, professionalism and level of education, i.e. In addition, a large role in choosing speech means plays a role in matching her surroundings. Thus, we can consider the accessibility of speech in terms of its appropriateness. However, it is impossible to correctly construct a speech for each specific audience, to make it as accessible as possible for understanding, using only the principle of appropriateness. Other functional communicative qualities of speech, such as logic, accuracy and expressiveness, also play an important role in this.
Conclusion.
Such is the miraculous power of the word. It is especially important and valid in complex communication situations. The word can be a powerful weapon not only in the hands of unscrupulous, self-interested demagogues. It can be an even more powerful weapon in the hands of fighters. And although they use it, they are not always aware of the power of the word - both destructive and creative.
It is not always clear, especially in difficult communication conditions, how to neutralize and expose the false and evil “anti-word” and how to give true power to the word. And even knowing, they do not always find the courage, responsibility and perseverance necessary to solve such problems. And even when they find it, they do not always master the art of such a subtle and effective word.
One of the most important tasks in developing a modern functional speech culture is mastering the skills and abilities to analyze complex communication situations, primarily in relation to practically directly relevant areas and situations. On this basis, appropriate productive skills can be acquired through self-education in natural speech practice.
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1) Comparable concepts must be combined as homogeneous members. The combination of incomparable concepts as homogeneous members inevitably entails a comic effect:
I love bananas, Saturday and gymnastics(op.);
The girl has a slim figure and a cheerful mood(op.).
The following case is more complicated:
E then (non-payments for thermal energy. - Comp.) entails a lack of fuel in the required volumes and timely preparation of engineering equipment(gas.). It should have been: ...lack of fuel and untimely preparation. The reason for the error seems to be that the word absence, which has a negative meaning, in the mind of the writer, seemed to extend this meaning to the concept of timely preparation of equipment. Another reason is also possible: the writer meant the lack of two things - fuel and timely preparation, but inadvertently replaced the adjective with a noun, and even in the nominative case.
2) Non-overlapping concepts (i.e., not connected by relations of partial inclusion) must be combined as homogeneous members. Violation of this rule also leads to a comic effect:
People and children will walk joyfully along the city streets(op.) (one might think that in the writer’s mind, children are not people).
3) Homogeneous members of a sentence can be expressed by different parts of speech, but combinations of homogeneous members of a noun and an indefinite form of a verb, full and short forms adjectives:
My girlfriend loves cleanliness, beautiful dishes and reading(op.); * This option is the most complex and, as the Kremlin believes, the most difficult to implement.(gas.); * Don Quixote was tall and thin(op.).
In constructions with homogeneous predicates It is not recommended to combine different models of predicates(for example, simple verb and compound nominal):
*Dove(wolf cub. - Comp.) quite yet young, unlike their relatives born in captivity, spent childhood in the forest near Pskov(gas.); * Jean-Charles Kastepbazhak and Andrey Sharov - avant-garde artists and hooligans modern podium and storytelling Yu t in “Double Portrait” about his ideals of female beauty and the secrets of his craft(gas.).
4) Extreme care is required when connecting homogeneous members with repeating and compound (double) conjunctions. When creating such a construction, it is always appropriate to check what exactly was connected by conjunctions: truly homogeneous members or something else, as in the following examples:
Most of the writer's works are or or penetrate them generously zano (op.) (it turned out: either paradoxes or permeated[?!]). Correct option: ..or represents brilliantly developed paradoxes, or plenty of them permeated ;
When connecting homogeneous members with repeated conjunctions (or... or, either... or), the conjunction cannot be replaced by a synonymous one: combinations or... or, etc. are not possible, as in the following example:
There were many people who or interfered Haitians to fight the good fight, or worked extremely poorly at enterprises(gas.).
5) When constructing a homogeneous series, you must ensure that the controlled word could not be simultaneously assigned to different controls, as in the following example:
At school trains car repair specialists and managers automobile enterprises(addition managers formally can be classified as a verb prepare, and to the noun repair, and in the latter case it turns out that specialists are taught to repair not only cars, but also... managers. To correct the shortcoming here, it is enough to swap the homogeneous terms). Wed. similar example by D.E. Rosenthal:
In our center already began training hunters to exterminate wolves and individuals, responsible for seasonal shooting.
6) Dependent homogeneous terms expressed by the same part of speech, must be formatted identically. This rule is obvious (after all, deviation from it automatically leads to destruction of the structure), but nevertheless it is often violated in structures with derivative prepositions regarding, in accordance with, provided etc. For example:
Veryour readers ask a lot of questions regarding malfunctions internal wiring and glazing landings(gas.).
The reason for the error is that two possible forms of the phrase are mixed here: a) questions regarding glazing and b) questions on glazing . The confusion in the writer’s speech arose due to the fact that the derivative preposition about includes the preposition By - it was he who influenced the choice of the shape of the second homogeneous member. Correct option:... questions about malfunctions... and glazing .
7) If a number of homogeneous members have a generalizing word, then the homogeneous members must be consistent with it in case (since the generalizing word is also a homogeneous member):
By autumn, delicious fruits appear and on gardening trees: apple trees, cherry, pear, plum(correct option: apple trees, cherries, pears, plums).
8) It is impossible to combine members of a proposal and simple sentences as part of a complex: definitions and attributive clauses, additions and explanatory (additional or subject) clauses, etc.:
* Natasha Rostova is a lively, cheerful girl with a keen sense of music, art and who is able to feel the suffering of others as her own(op.) Correct options: a) sensitive to music and capable of feeling...; b) who subtly feels music and is able to feel...