Literature
Legends of ancient Rome. How did the ancient myths of Rome originate?

Legends of ancient Rome. How did the ancient myths of Rome originate?

A A Neihardt

Legends and tales of ancient Rome

GODS. ANCIENT ITALIAN DEITIES

The powerful ruler of the sky, the personification of sunlight, thunderstorms, storms, who in anger threw lightning, striking with them those who disobeyed his divine will - such was the supreme ruler of the gods, Jupiter. His abode was on high mountains, from where he looked out over the whole world, the fate of individuals and nations depended on him.

Jupiter expressed his will with the peals of thunder, the flash of lightning, the flight of birds (especially the appearance of an eagle dedicated to him); sometimes he sent prophetic dreams in which he revealed the future. The priests of the formidable god, the pontiffs, performed especially solemn ceremonies in those places where lightning struck. This area was fenced off so that no one could walk through it and thus desecrate the sacred place. The earth was carefully collected and buried along with a piece of flint - a symbol of lightning. The priest erected an altar at this place and sacrificed a two-year-old sheep. To Jupiter, a powerful protector who bestows victory and rich military spoils, a grandiose temple was erected on the Capitoline Hill in Rome, where generals, returning from victorious campaigns, brought the armor of defeated leaders and the most valuable treasures taken from their enemies. Jupiter simultaneously patronized people and sanctified their relationships. He cruelly punished oathbreakers and violators of the customs of hospitality. In honor of this highest god of all ancient Latium, general festivities were held several times a year - at the beginning of sowing and the end of the harvest, during the grape harvest. The Capitoline and Great Games with equestrian and athletic competitions were held annually in Rome. The most important days of the year—the Ides[*] of each month—were dedicated to the greatest and visionary Jupiter, who controls the destinies of the world and people. The name of Jupiter was mentioned in every significant matter, public or private. They swore by his name, and the oath was considered inviolable, for the quick-to-death and irritable god inexorably punished the wicked. Since the main features of the Italian Jupiter were very similar to the image of the supreme deity of the Greeks, Zeus, with the increasing influence of Greek culture, elements of Greek mythology merged into the Roman religion. And many legends associated with Zeus were transferred to Jupiter. His father began to be called Saturn, the god of crops, who first gave people food and ruled them during the golden age, like the Greek Kronos. Thus, the wife of Saturn, the goddess of the rich harvest Ops, began to be considered the mother of Jupiter, and since when addressing the goddess it was prescribed to touch the earth, her image naturally merged with the image of the goddess Rhea, the wife of Kronos.

[* Days falling in the middle of the month (13th – 15th).]

Especially colorful were the celebrations in honor of Saturn and his wife Saturnalia, which began on December 17 after the end of the harvest and lasted seven days. During these celebrations, people sought to revive the memory of the golden age of the reign of Saturn, when, in the words of the Roman poet Ovid, “spring stood forever” and “the Earth brought a harvest without plowing”, “safely living people tasted the sweet peace”[*]. And indeed, on the days of Saturnalia, people spent their time in carefree fun, games, dances, and feasts. They gave gifts to their loved ones and even freed slaves from work, seated them at the table and treated them, believing that they were paying tribute to the equality that once existed between people.

[* Publius Ovid Naso. Metamorphoses (Transformations).]

Before Jupiter, Janus was the deity of the sky and sunlight, who opened the heavenly gates and released the sun into the sky, and closed these gates at night. Then he gave up his place to the ruler of the sky, Jupiter, and he himself took an equally honorable place - the ruler of all beginnings and undertakings in time. All entrances and exits were under his patronage, be it the doors of a private house, a temple of the gods, or the gates of city walls. Every day began in the name of Janus, invoked by the priests; the first month of the year and the first day of the year were also named after him[*] and celebrated in his honor. Sacrifices were made to the god Janus in the form of honey pies, wine, and fruits. People wished each other happiness, gave sweets as a symbol that the whole coming year would pass under the sign of happy (and sweet) satisfaction of all desires. Quarrels and discord with shouting and noise were prohibited by law, so as not to darken the benevolent attitude of Janus, who, when angry, could send down a bad year for everyone. On this significant day, the priests sacrificed a white bull to Janus in the presence of all officials and offered prayers for the well-being of the Roman state. The Temple of Janus consisted of two large arches connected by transverse walls, with two gates facing each other. Inside there was a statue of a god who had two faces facing in opposite directions (one to the past, the other to the future). Janus had a key in his hand, with which he unlocked and locked the gates of heaven. Since Janus was the god of time, counting days, months and years, the number 300 (Latin numerals = CCC) was inscribed on his right hand (on his fingers), and 65 (Latin numerals - LXV) was inscribed on his left hand, which meant the number of days per year. The Temple of Janus played a special role in the military affairs of Ancient Rome[**]. When a decision was made to declare war on any state, the main person in the state, be it a king or a consul, unlocked the double doors of the temple with a key and armed warriors going on a campaign, as well as young men who took up arms for the first time, passed under the arches in front of the faces of Janus. Throughout the war, the gates of the temple stood open. When peace was concluded, the armed troops again passed in front of the statue of the god, returning from a victorious campaign, and the heavy double oak doors of the temple, decorated with gold and ivory, were again locked.

[* Januaris is the Latin name from which the name of one of the winter months “January” comes.]

[** The first temple to the god Janus was erected, according to legend, by King Numa Pomnilius (see p. 537). To the surprise of contemporaries and descendants, its gates were closed for 43 years.]

God Janus, in addition, was considered the patron of roads and travelers. He was also revered by Italian sailors, who believed that it was he who taught people how to build the first ships. There was also a belief that Janus reigned on earth even before Saturn, and people owe all their skills in cultivating the land, knowledge of crafts and calculating time to this benevolent and fair deity. The wife of Janus was the water nymph Juturn, the patroness of springs, and their son Fone was revered as the god of fountains and springs gushing out of the ground. In October, festivities were held in honor of Fons - fontinalia. The wells were surrounded with garlands of flowers, and wreaths were thrown into the springs. Therefore, Janus, the father of Fons, was credited with the creation of all rivers and streams.

The furious and indomitable god of war, Mars was revered as the father of the great and warlike Roman people, whose glory began with the founder of the city of Rome - Romulus (Romulus and his twin brother Remus, according to legend, were the sons of Mars). Thanks to the patronage of the mighty god of war, the Romans won victories over neighboring tribes, and then other peoples. Mars had two nicknames - Mars Marching into Battle (Gradivus) and Mars the Spearbearer (Quirinus). After the death of Romulus and his deification, the god Quirinus appeared, into whom Romulus turned, thus becoming the double of Mars.

Special sacrifices were dedicated to the Trinity of gods - patrons of military valor and guardians of the Roman state - Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus, and they were called upon for victory in battles. The third month of the year (March) was named after Mars, and in the first days of the year, horse competitions were held, since horses, the faithful support of a warrior in battle, were dedicated to the god Mars. On the first of March, in honor of the warlike god, there was a procession of his priests - the Salii, who moved with sacred dances and chants, striking their shields with spears, one of which, according to legend, fell straight from the sky under King Numa Pompilius. The words of these hymns sung by the Salii were incomprehensible already to the priests themselves, which, of course, pointed to the magical meaning of this rite, which apparently went back to ancient times. On this day, men gave gifts to their wives, and women - to slaves. The god of war had other, more peaceful duties; he embodied the productive forces of nature, male power and was revered as the god of spring. In addition, he was considered a protector of fields and herds from pests and wolves. Therefore, farmers and shepherds made sacrifices to Mars, and the woodpecker and wolf were dedicated to him. But, of course, his military power prevailed, and when the commander set out on a campaign, he went to the temple of Mars and, shaking the sacred shield and spear of the god, addressed him, calling: “Wake, Mars!” , Mars’ constant companions in battle were his wife Neriena (strength), Pallor (pallor) and Pa-thief (terror). The daughter or sister of Mars was the goddess of war Bellona (from the Latin word bellum - war). At the back wall of her temple, where Roman rulers received foreign ambassadors or generals returning from a campaign, there was a column, near which the fetial priest performed the ceremony of declaring war. Since the Roman Mars and the Greek Ares were very similar, much of what was told in the Greek myths about Ares was transferred to Mars.

The divine wife of Jupiter, the queen of the sky Juno, like him, who gives people favorable weather, thunderstorms, rains and harvests, bestows success and victories, was also revered as the patroness of women, especially married women. Juno was the guardian of marriages and an assistant during childbirth. She was also revered as a great goddess of fertility. The cult of Jupiter was in charge of the priest - the Flamin, and the cult of Juno - the wife of the Flamin. Married women annually celebrated the so-called matronalia on the first of March in honor of Juno. With wreaths in their hands, they marched to the Temple of Juno on the Esquiline Hill and, together with prayers for happiness in family life, sacrificed flowers to the goddess. At the same time, slaves also took part in the celebration. Juno enjoyed great authority as a giver of sensible advice. Not only ordinary people, but also statesmen turned to her in difficult times. A temple to Juno Moneta (persuader) was erected on the Capitoline Hill. There was also a mint of the Roman state[*], which, according to legend, she provided patronage. The birds sacred to Juno were the peacock and geese. The famous legend about the salvation of Rome during the invasion of the Gauls is associated with these geese. When in the 5th century BC. Rome was captured by the Gallic hordes that unexpectedly attacked it; the surviving Roman soldiers fortified themselves on the Capitoline Hill and were severely hungry, awaiting help from the allied troops. To inform the besieged about imminent help, it was necessary to get through the Gaul camp and overcome the steep walls of the Capitoline fortress. This feat was a success for the Roman youth Cominius, who achieved an inaccessible ascent with great risk and courage. The Gauls noticed the place where Cominius managed to rise, and their leader Brennus announced that he promised a great reward to those warriors who were able to capture the impregnable fortress. And so, under the cover of the darkness of the night, the Gauls, moving from one horizontally turned shield of the warriors standing below to another, reached the top of the hill along this peculiar pyramid and killed the sleepy sentries. But when they began to advance further in order to capture the fortress with an unexpected attack, the hungry geese dedicated to Juno, who were located at her temple, began to cackle loudly and woke up the Roman soldiers. They immediately rushed at the rising Gauls and threw them off the cliff. Falling, the Gauls destroyed the rows of the pyramid.

[* From this nickname of Juno came the common name for money – “coin”.]

The first of the Romans to rush at the Gauls who suddenly appeared, Marcus Manlius, received a one-day portion of bread and wine from each of the soldiers.

The goddess who patronized cities and the peaceful pursuits of their inhabitants was the daughter of Jupiter Minerva. Craftsmen, artists and sculptors, poets and musicians, doctors, teachers and skilled needlewomen enjoyed its special favor. Celebrations in honor of the beautiful and wise goddess were held in the second half of March, called quinquatria and lasted five days. On the first day of the quinquatria, students were freed from classes and paid their teachers for their studies. On this day, hostilities, if they took place, were interrupted, and a general bloodless sacrifice of cakes, honey and oil took place. Then gladiatorial games were held, and on the last day, sacrifices were made to Minerva, in a special room for shoemakers, and the solemn consecration of trumpets took place, which were under the special patronage of the goddess, since the class of trumpeters played a large role in city life, participating in ceremonies, funerals and various rituals. The flutists considered their main holidays to be the minor quinquatria in honor of Minerva, celebrated from June 13 and lasting for three days. Minerva was part of the divine trinity, which, besides her, included Jupiter and Juno[*]. In their honor, a magnificent temple was erected on the Capitoline Hill, which began construction during the reign of King Tarquinius Gord. This temple, erected on a high pedestal, had three sanctuaries - Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. In the temple there was a statue of Jupiter, sculpted by the famous Etruscan sculptor Vulca from baked clay and covered with cinnabar[**]. The Supreme God was depicted sitting on a throne, wearing a crown with a scepter and lightning in his hands. The temple burned down, set on fire by an attacker. After its restoration, a relief image of Rome was placed on the central tympanum, located on the shields, and in front of it - a she-wolf nursing Romulus and Remus. On the gable roof, covered with gilded copper, in the center was placed a quadriga[*] with Jupiter armed with lightning and a scepter, to his left was a statue of Minerva, and to his right was Juno. At the edges of the roof there are two sitting eagles. Between the four middle columns there were three disks hanging on chains (there were six columns in total along the façade).

[* Apparently, this was a direct borrowing from the Etruscans of their divine trinity: Tini (Jupiter), Uni (Juno) and Menrva (Minerva).]

[** Hence the ancient custom of covering the face of a triumphant commander with red paint, for he was likened to Jupiter with his clothes, regalia and face.]

[***Chariot drawn by four horses.]

Near the Capitoline Hill there was a sanctuary of the god Terminus, the patron saint of boundaries, boundary stones between land plots and the boundaries of the city and state. Sacred ceremonies to establish borders and boundary stones were introduced by King Numa Pompilius. A fire was made in a hole dug for the boundary stone; A sacrificial animal was slaughtered over it so that its blood, flowing into the pit, would not extinguish the fire. Honey, incense and wine were poured there, fruits were thrown and, finally, a stone decorated with a wreath was placed. On the day of the Terminalia holiday, the owners of adjacent fields gathered at their boundary stones, decorating them with flowers, and sacrificed cake, honey and wine to the god Terminus. Then a cheerful and friendly feast began. The most important incarnation of the god Terminus was the sacred stone located at the Capitoline Temple.

Diana was the patron goddess of animals, flowering fields, green groves and forests, where she sometimes hunted. She was especially revered by rural residents, for whom she made hard work easier and helped in healing diseases of people and animals.

King Servius Tullius erected the first temple of Diana on the Aventine Hill in Rome, and since this hill was inhabited by people of average income or simply the poor, she became the patroness of the lower classes (plebeians and slaves). At the same time, she was revered as the goddess of the Moon and the giver of light and life. Near the temple of Diana in Aricia, not far from Rome, healing springs flowed, and the priests of the goddess successfully treated many diseases. There was even a special hospital set up where Diana’s fans, who believed in her healing power, flocked in search of healing. Those who received help from the goddess brought her, in addition to the usual gifts, also images of body parts healed by her, made of clay. The sanctuary of Diana of Aricia itself was located not far from a beautiful lake[*], surrounded by wooded mountains. Here, behind the temple, there was a green grove at the source of the nymph Egeria. Any fugitive slave or criminal could take refuge in this grove, but in order to gain refuge, he had to become a priest of the goddess by plucking a branch from the sacred tree. At the same time, he was obliged to engage in battle with the priest who guarded the sacred grove and kill him in order to take the vacated place. This bloody rite undoubtedly retained the features of the primitive cult of Diana Nemorenzis, who once demanded human sacrifices. He brought the cult of Roman Diana very close to the cult of Greek Artemis in Tauris.

[*Modern Lake Nemi.]

Venus was the patroness of flowering gardens, the goddess of spring, fertility, growth and flowering of all fruit-bearing forces of nature. She was revered as a deity of women and as a benefactor of happy marital love on the Kalends (first days) of April, the month dedicated to Venus. In honor of the beautiful goddess, solemn sacrifices were made, prayers were offered to her for the extension of youth, beauty and for the achievement of marital happiness. According to legend, Venus (Aphrodite) was the mother of the Trojan hero Aeneas, who sailed from Troy to Italy, whose descendants founded Rome. Therefore, the Romans revered Venus as the ancestor of the Roman people. There were a great many of her sanctuaries and altars in Rome, but the most luxurious temple to Venus the Progenitor was built in the 1st century. BC e. Julius Caesar[*]. After all, the Yuliev family originated from the son of Aeneas, Askania-Yul, who was the grandson of the goddess Venus herself. The symbols of the goddess were the dove and the hare (as a sign of fertility); the plants dedicated to her were poppy, rose, and myrtle. The Romans revered the son of Venus, the god of love Cupid, in the same way as the Greeks revered Eros.

[* Caesar, Gaius Julius (102 or 100 - 44 BC) - commander, statesman and dictator of Ancient Rome.]

The young goddess of blooming flowers, who rules over all living beings with the arrival of spring - this was Flora in the minds of the Romans. In honor of this goddess, the legendary Roman kings erected a temple, where the cult of Flora was led by a priest - the flamen. Special festivals were established, which were called floralia and lasted from April 28 to May 3. On these days, the doors of all houses were decorated with flower garlands and wreaths, women in colorful colorful dresses (which was strictly prohibited on ordinary days), wearing fragrant wreaths, indulged in merry dances and jokes. All the people at the festivals in honor of the beautiful and joy-giving goddess had fun and feasted. On one of the days of the floralia, games and competitions were organized.

Tellura, mother earth, was one of the oldest Italic goddesses. She personified that fertile land on which everything grows, everything that a person needs for existence. She was considered the mistress of earthquakes and the ruler of the living and the dead. According to legend, the first servant of Tellura (she was also called the “Bright Goddess”) was the wife of the shepherd Faustulus (who found and raised the twins Romulus and Remus), whose name was Acca Larentia. She had 12 sons of her own, and all of them unanimously helped their mother during sacrifices in honor of the goddess Tellura. When one of the brothers died, Romulus took his place. Having become the Roman king, Romulus established a priestly college of 12 people, which was called the college of the Arval brothers (from the Latin word arvum - arable, field). Once a year, a solemn ritual of sacrifice was performed to the “Bright Goddess” so that she would send down a good harvest to the fields of Roman farmers. The time of this festival, which usually fell in the second half of May, before the harvest, was announced in advance by the head of the Arval brothers. The ritual was observed very strictly, since the slightest violation could displease the goddess and, consequently, threaten the harvest. The entire ceremony lasted three days. On the first and last day, the priests gathered in the city, in the house of the head of the Arval brothers. In ceremonial robes, they offered sacrifice to Tellura with wine and incense. Then the ceremony of blessing the loaves, crowned with laurel leaves, and the ears of the past and new harvest took place. Somewhat later, a common meal of the priests was arranged with joint prayers and libations of wine on the altar of Tellura. At the end of the ceremony, the participants offered roses to each other with wishes of happiness. On the second day, the holiday was transferred to the sacred grove of the “Bright Goddess”, where her temple and a building with a feast hall for sacred meals were located. Early in the morning, the head of the college brought a cleansing sacrifice - two pigs and one heifer. In the afternoon, wearing crowns of ears of grain and covering their heads, they all went to the grove, where they sacrificed a fat sheep, incense and wine. Then a libation was poured out, and the Arval brothers went to the nearest field to get some ears of corn, cut them and passed them on, transferring them from their left hand to their right. This procedure was repeated twice, after which it was done with the bread, which the priests, upon entering the temple, distributed among themselves. Having locked the temple and removed all strangers from there, the Arval brothers began a sacred dance, while singing a hymn, the words of which they themselves no longer understood. And since it was difficult to remember them, and a mistake threatened the wrath of the goddess, everyone had special liturgical records, which they strictly followed. Of course, these were ancient spells about sending down the harvest, addressed to the earth.

The goddess of the harvest, the patroness of fertility, Ceres was deeply revered by Roman farmers. In her honor, solemn cerealia celebrations were held, beginning on April 11 or 12 and lasting 8 days. Cerealia were observed especially zealously by the lower classes - the plebeians. They dressed up in white clothes (as opposed to ordinary work clothes), decorated themselves with wreaths, and after ceremonial sacrifices (they offered pigs, fruits, honeycombs), they had fun with horse racing in the circus for eight days. The Roman people hosted festive meals, inviting everyone passing by to appease Ceres, who provided hearty food. Gradually, the cult of the goddess Ceres merged with the cult of the “Bright Goddess” (Tellura) and the Greek Demeter, but the festival of Cerealia with its fun and wide hospitality was preserved.

Bacchus is the patron god of vineyards, winemaking and wine, revered under the name Liber[*]. His wife was the goddess Libera, who helped winegrowers and winemakers. The holiday in honor of this married couple was celebrated on March 17 and was called liberalia. In the cities on this day, in addition to solemn sacrifices, theatrical performances were held, and in the countryside it was marked by cheerful processions, jokes, dances and feasts with an abundance of libations for Bacchus Liber, who frees a person from all kinds of worries with his wonderful drink, and his kind and beautiful wife Libere. During liberalism, sacrifices were also made to the goddess Ceres. The sanctuary of Liber and Libera was located in the temple of Ceres. The cult of Bacchus-Liber was very close to the cult of the Greek Dionysus.

[* Liber – in Latin means “free”. Apparently, this name contained a hint of some freedom and licentiousness in the festivities held in honor of Bacchus.]

Vertumnus and Pomona

Vertumnus was the god of the change of seasons and the transformations that occur with earthly fruits - first they bloom, then ripen and, finally, fall from the branches bent under their weight. Vertumnus sent down to the earth the flowering of spring, the summer harvest and the abundance of autumn fruits. But the young and hardworking goddess Pomona carefully took care of the fruit trees, especially apple trees. She managed to trim dry branches in all the gardens, plant new cuttings, and water drying trees with clear water. Busy with her chores, she completely did not notice how such field and forest deities as Picus[*], who lived in a grove near the Aventine Hill, and Silvanus, as well as playful satyrs, tried to attract her attention. But most of all, the god Vertumnus was captivated by the young beauty of Pomona. Using his gift of transformation, he began to appear to Pomona in a variety of guises - from a warrior to a fisherman and a simple gardener, offering her his love, but no one could capture Pomona’s heart and even for a moment distract her from her favorite business. Vertumnus decided to influence the stubborn woman with the power of someone else’s persuasion. Having turned into a decrepit old woman, he came to Pomona and, while she was offering the venerable guest fresh fruit, began in a rattling old voice to convince her to marry the glorious god Vertumnus. Pomona resolutely refused here too, citing the fact that she had never seen God and could not judge his merits. Then Vertumnus appeared before the embarrassed Pomona in all the splendor of his beauty. His curls shone with gold, his eyes burned with love. In one hand the young man held a garden knife, in the other - a full basket of fragrant fruits. Captivated by the beautiful god, young Pomona agreed to become his wife. Having united forever, they passionately continued to take care of the prosperity and freshness of the fruitful gardens of the Italian land. The Romans deeply revered this young divine couple. The temple of Vertumnus was erected on the Aventine Hill, and Pomona had its own priest, the Flaminus. When the fruits began to ripen, gardeners made sacrifices to these gods, and on August 13 a festival took place in honor of Vertumnus and his beautiful wife.

[* Deity of fields and forests, possessing the gift of divination. Pieck rejected the love of the sorceress Circe (Circe), and as punishment she turned him into a woodpecker, which the Romans considered a bird.]

Faun was a kind, cheerful and active god of forests, groves and fields. He vigilantly guarded the shepherds' flocks from predators, for which the shepherds revered him under the name of the god Luperk (protector from wolves) [*] and sacrificed goats and goats to appease him. Every year on February 15, all of Rome celebrated the sacred Lupercalia, established, according to legend, by Romulus and Remus, who in infancy were fed by a she-wolf and themselves grew up among shepherds. The Sanctuary of Faun - Lupercal - was located near the grotto on the Palatine Hill, in which the infants Romulus and Remus were found by a shepherd. The celebration of Lupercalia began with the sacrifice of goats and goats, and two young men stood near the altar, to whose foreheads the priests, the Luperci, touched a sacrificial knife covered in blood and immediately erased these bloody stripes with goat hair soaked in milk. At the same time, the young men had to laugh. Having completed the ritual of sacrifice and sacred feast, the priests, having cut loincloths - aprons and belts called februa [**] from the skins of the sacrificed goats, ran out of Lupercal with screams and noise and rushed around the Palatine Hill, striking everyone they encountered with belts. This was an ancient cleansing and atonement rite, and the Romans willingly exposed themselves to the blows of the sacred belts, as if removing from them all the filth that had accumulated over the year. Women who wanted to preserve marital happiness, peace in the family and increase their family, were sure to get hit by the goat belt and went out to meet the running Luperci. Loving and honoring the god Faun, who was disposed towards them, Roman farmers and shepherds also celebrated faunalia, which they celebrated on December 5 in the open air. The sacrifices, consisting of wine, milk and slaughtered goats, ended with a cheerful feast, in which the cheerful and kind Faun himself symbolically took part. On this day, cattle were allowed to roam the fields and forests without shepherds, arable animals rested, and slaves were allowed to have fun in the meadows and crossroads. Although Faun was a benevolent deity, sometimes he liked to have fun and scare a person who wandered into the depths of the forest and disturbed his peace. He loved to whisper all sorts of scary stories to those sleeping. To those to whom he was favorable, the Faun communicated his predictions with a special rustle of leaves. After all, Faun was the son of the god Peak and inherited the prophetic gift from him. If a person wanted to get an answer to the questions that tormented him, he had to, without fear, being in a sacred grove, lie down on the skin of a sacrificed sheep and receive the Faun’s prophecy in a dream.

[* "Wolf" is "lupus" in Latin.]

[** Hence the name of the month – february (February).]

Silvan was very close to the god Faun, who was revered as the patron god of the forest. He, like the Faun, protected the herds grazing in the forests, and loved the simple shepherd's pipe. His constant companion was a dog - a faithful assistant to the shepherds. Silvan also had the gift of prophecy, and sometimes from the depths of the forest the loud and fear-inducing voice of a god would be heard, foreshadowing important events. Only men were allowed to participate in the festivities in honor of the god Silvanus. This was strictly prohibited for women.

Under the patronage of the goddess Faun there were fields, forests and gardens, which she generously endowed with fertility, being the wife of the god Faun and sharing his concerns with him. Under the name of the "Good Goddess" (Bona Dea), she showed special favor to women who celebrated two solemn holidays in her honor. One of them took place on the first of May in the temple of the goddess, located on the Aventine Hill, where crowds of Roman women flocked who wanted to honor their high patroness and make her the customary sacrifices. The second celebration took place in the first days of December and was celebrated in the house of one of the highest officials (consul or praetor). The men had to leave the house all night. The sacraments of the ceremony were supervised by the priestesses of the goddess Vesta and the mistress of the house where the service was performed. Only women could be present, and they kept the secrets of this ritual so sacredly that to this day no one has been able to find out what exactly happened there. It was only known that the tent where the image of the goddess stood was decorated with vines, sacred earth was poured at the feet of the statue, and all sacrifices were accompanied by music and the singing of hymns. In the history of this cult, only a single case is known when a young man tried to enter the house where the sacrament was taking place, dressing in a woman’s dress and posing as a musician. The deception was exposed by the maids, and the culprit was accused of sacrilege[*].

[* This insolence was allowed by the young Roman aristocrat Clodius, who bribed one of the servants in the house of Julius Caesar, where the sacrament in honor of the “Good Goddess” took place. Clodius was accused of impiety, and a wave of indignation broke out about this. Then Julius Caesar divorced his wife. He was asked why he did this, because she was not to blame for anything. Caesar responded with a phrase that became a proverb: “I did it because Caesar’s wife should be above suspicion.”]

The goddess of the hearth and the fire that burned in it, Vesta was revered as the patroness of the state, and the fire that burned in her temple was considered eternal and unquenchable. He was the incarnation of the greatest goddess herself, which is why there was no statue of her in the temple. In the secret place of the temple, called “Pen” (Pentralia), sacred objects were kept, among which were penate images of the patron gods, brought, according to legend, by the hero Aeneas from the destroyed Troy. Only the high priest - the great pontiff and the vestals - priestesses of the goddess Vesta knew about these objects.

The main duty of the Vestals (there were six of them) was to maintain an unquenchable flame in the temple of the goddess. The priestesses were selected very carefully, from good families, without physical disabilities. The Great Pontiff himself selected six girls from 6 to 10 years old out of 20 chosen by lot. They entered into training with the elder Vestal Virgins for ten years, first undergoing an initiation ceremony to Vesta. Their hair was cut off, which was hung as a sacrifice to the goddess on a sacred tree, then they were dressed in white clothes and given the name Amata, which was added to their own. After studying for ten years, the young priestesses began their duties, which they were expected to perform over the next decade. The most serious offense of the Vestal Virgin was “desecrating the fire of Vesta” - violating her vow of chastity. The culprit was punished with a terrible death - she was buried alive in the ground. Near the Collin Gate, near the city wall, a small cellar was dug in an earthen rampart, into which one descended along earthen steps. In this cellar they made a bed, placed a lighted lamp and left a small supply of food - bread, water, a jug of milk and a little butter. This was done in order not to offend the goddess by starving the sacred person of her priestess. The Vestal Virgin who broke her vow was placed in complete silence on a stretcher tightly closed and tied with leather straps. Even her voice could not be heard from there. The whole city was plunged into deep sadness. When the stretcher reached the place of imprisonment, the straps were untied. The Great Pontiff offered prayers, raising his hands to heaven before carrying out the terrible sentence, then led the Vestal Virgin, wrapped from head to toe in a veil, from the bier, to the fatal steps, straight into the grave. The doomed woman silently went down, and the hole was closed, covering it with earth.

For other offenses, the young Vestals were mercilessly flogged, and if the sacred fire of some negligent priestess was extinguished, then the Great Pontiff himself flogged her. An extinguished fire on Vesta’s hearth was considered a bad omen for the state, and it could only be rekindled by rubbing wood sticks, which testified to the deep antiquity of the ritual, for in this way fire was produced in primitive times. Having served for ten years, the Vestals had to devote another ten years to the upbringing and training of newly accepted girls. Thus, for thirty years the Vestals served their goddess. After this, they had the right to return to their home and even get married. But for the most part, the Vestals remained at the temple, since they occupied an extremely honorable position in Rome. When they were driving down the street, everyone had to give way to them. Their testimony in court was crucial. Insulting a vestal virgin was punishable by death. If the Vestal Virgin met a criminal condemned to execution, the execution was canceled. Statues were erected to especially respected Vestal Virgins who provided any important services[*]. The eldest among them was called the chief vestal and led all the others. In Rome, annually on June 9, festivities were celebrated in honor of the goddess - the guardian of the state and the family hearth. They were called vestals and were accompanied by rituals and sacrifices consisting of yearling heifers, fruits, wine, water and oil. Vesta was a symbol that united Roman citizens into one big family around a common hearth. That is why the cult of this goddess was so important in the life of the Roman state. While the fire of Vesta burned in her sanctuary and sacred relics were kept in her temple, Rome, protected by these shrines, was strong and powerful.

[* Several similar statues were found, and although their faces were damaged, all the details of the clothes and headdresses of these priestesses were perfectly preserved.]

The Romans’ veneration of the god Vulcan is also associated with the state cult of fire and hearth. There was no Temple of Vulcan in the city itself, but in the center of Rome, on an elevation above the forum, there was a sacred platform, the so-called volcano, where, as if at a state hearth, meetings of the Senate were held. All the temples of Vulcan, as a deity associated with fire and fires, were located outside the city walls. Vulcan, like the Greek god Hephaestus, was a skilled blacksmith and patron of artisans and jewelers. His wife was the beautiful goddess Venus. The festivities held in honor of Vulcan took place on August 23 and were celebrated with sacrifices and noisy games in a large circus. Vulcan was also revered as the god of underground fire, which always threatened with eruptions. It was believed that his divine forge was located in the depths of Mount Etna in Sicily, where he was helped in his work by giant Cyclopes.

Penates, lares, manas

The cult of the Penates, good household gods who guarded the unity and well-being of each family, was also associated with the veneration of the hearth. Their images were usually placed in a closed cabinet near the fireplace, where all family members gathered. During joyful events in the family, thanksgiving sacrifices were made to the penates. The guardians of the house were the Lares, good spirits who never left the house, unlike the Penates, who could be taken with them when moving to another place. The laras were also kept near the hearth in a special cabinet-lararium, the doors of which were opened during family holidays so that the laras could take part in the general fun and meal. Food and drink were placed in front of them in special dishes, and on the birthdays of their family members they were decorated with flowers. When the son put on a man's toga for the first time, he dedicated his children's amulet - bulla [*] to the laras, while making libations and prayers. Upon entering her husband's house, the newlywed would certainly make a sacrifice to the laras, under whose protection she came. Lars protected all family members both during travel and military campaigns. One just had to remember about sacrifices. In addition to household lares, the lares of the Roman state were especially revered, embodying the spirits of ancient heroes - Romulus, Remus, Titus Tatius, who were considered the founders and defenders of the city of Rome. Akka Larentia, who together with her husband raised Romulus and Remus, was also counted among the Lares. On the solemn holiday of Larentalia, celebrated on December 23, a funeral sacrifice was specially brought to her. In addition, since the chapels of the Lares, guarding the inhabitants of the streets, stood at crossroads, they were also given honors, their altars were decorated with flowers on the holiday of compitalia, and libations of wine and oil were made. At the same time, the poor of the Roman quarters had a lot of fun, watching the performances of comedians and acrobats, athletic competitions and taking part in entertainment in honor of the good lari.

[* Bulla is a golden round medallion-ball that contained an amulet. It was worn on a ribbon around the neck by all freeborn Roman boys.]

Manas were also good patrons of the family, but they embodied the souls of deceased ancestors. They were propitiated with libations of water, wine and milk, and on February 21 with a general celebration - February and a solemn meal in honor of their dead ancestors.

The Muns lived in the underworld, and on the Palatine Hill there was a deep hole covered with stone, which was called the Mundus. This was the sacred abode of the manas. It was opened three times a year to perform solemn ceremonies to appease the mana gods. Sacrifices were made - wine, water, milk, the blood of black sheep, bulls and pigs. At the time when festivals were held in honor of the manas, the temples of all other gods were closed, and wedding ceremonies were prohibited. The entire state offered prayers to the beneficent and benevolent manas.

But not only the good spirits of the dead were supposed to make sacrifices. The evil and vengeful spirits of dead bad people were not only tormented themselves. but they also took out their suffering on the living. At night, these evil spirits, called larvas, left the underworld and pursued those whom they considered their enemies, tormenting them with nightmares and terrible visions. The Romans also called them lemurs[*]. On the days of Lemuria, the festival of the dead, which was celebrated for three days, or rather nights (9, 11 and 13 May), in order to appease the evil spirits roaming the earth in crowds at this time, the head of each family had to perform the same ancient rite. Exactly at midnight he got up, walked barefoot around all the rooms and walked out the threshold. Having washed himself with spring water, the owner threw black beans over his shoulder nine times, without looking back, repeating each time: “I give these beans to you and with these beans I redeem myself and my loved ones.” It was believed that the lemurs followed him and willingly ate the sacrificial beans. Then the head of the house again washed himself with water and, in order to drive the lemurs away from the house, struck one copper basin against another, repeating nine times the request to the evil spirits to leave his home. This rite, repeated three times without any changes, testified to the fact that many primitive magical features were preserved in the Roman religion.

[* Lemurs are scary ghosts that appear in the form of skeletons or vampires and suck blood from living people.]

Geniuses and Junos

Each Roman had his own genius - a deity that accompanied him throughout his life - from cradle to grave, prompting a person to take the actions that he performed along the path of life. Therefore, on his birthday, every Roman made sacrifices to his genius - flowers, fruits, incense and libations. All significant events in life were marked by sacrifice to genius. The Romans feasted with friends, wanting to bring joy to the genius. After the death of a person, his genius remained on earth, staying near his grave. The same role in the life of Roman women was played by their Junos - female geniuses. There were geniuses under whose patronage the state, city, and even individual localities were. Usually a beautiful snake was considered the genius of the area, to which ripe beautiful fruits were sacrificed.

In addition to the genius, the child in infancy was surrounded by caring gods and goddesses. Some helped the newborn make his first cry, others guarded the cradle, taught him to drink, eat, move, speak, leave the house and come back. The life of nature was viewed in the same way - that’s why the Romans had so many gods and goddesses who seemed to care about the same thing - so that the grain would be thrown into the ground, so that the grains would rise, spike and be harvested, so that they would bloom flowers, garden trees bore fruit, vineyards bore fruit. For the Roman, the whole world was filled with deities with whom he constantly encountered and whom he had to please in order for his life to proceed well. To do this, it was necessary to know exactly which deity and how to turn, so as not to receive punishment instead of the expected mercy. It was practically impossible to remember all these institutions, the order of making sacrifices and saying prayers, and therefore it was necessary to turn to priests who firmly knew the rules of communication with the deity. Priests and priestesses of various gods - pontiffs, flamines, fetials, Luperci, Salii, Vestals, Arval brothers, augurs[*], haruspices[**] played a huge role in the public and private life of the Romans. They knew exactly the formulas of prayers, everything that should be done and promised to God in order to get what they wanted from him. The main thing in relation to the deity was the strict fulfillment of prescribed rituals, loyalty, piety and observance of the prohibitions imposed by the gods. Carefully observing all the conditions prescribed by the deity, the Roman believer expected an equally scrupulous fulfillment of what he asked from God. All this resembled a business agreement between the worshiper and God. At the same time, the worshiper had to indicate exactly what he was sacrificing so that the gods would not misunderstand him. So, for example, when making a libation, one should say: “Take this wine that I bring you,” so that the deity would not think that he was promised all the wine that was in the praying person’s cellar. When offering prayer, the Roman covered his head with a cloak in order to better concentrate and comply with all formalities. And even when turning to Jupiter, the most important deity of the Romans, well known to everyone, the most prudent petitioners were careful, using the following formula: “Mighty Jupiter, or how to call you by another name, the one that you like more...” Thus, all Roman religion came down to strictly developed rituals and sacred formulas, which only people who were specially involved in this could know, that is, priests. They took upon themselves the interpretation of magical spells and rituals that came from ancient times and were preserved in the religion of the Romans.

[* Priests who predicted the future by the flight of birds and their attitude towards sacred food.]

[** Priests who predicted the future from the entrails of animals, interpreted the secret meaning of lightning strikes in accordance with the location of their impact and color. The haruspices from Etruria, which was generally the cradle of all sorts of superstitions and magical rituals that passed into Roman beliefs, were especially famous.]

HEROES AND LEGENDS

[Based on the poem “Aeneid” by the Roman poet Publius Maro Virgil (1st century BC) and “Roman History from the Founding of the City” by Titus Livius (59 BC – 17 AD) .]

The powerful and beautiful wife of the thunderer Jupiter, the goddess Juno, has long hated the Trojans for the indelible insult inflicted on her by Prince Paris: he awarded the golden apple not to her, the mistress of the gods, but to the goddess Venus. In addition to this insult, Juno knew about a prediction that promised her beloved city of Carthage, rich and famous for its valor, which she herself patronized, would die from the descendants of the Trojans who had escaped from Troy destroyed by the Greeks. Moreover, the Trojan Aeneas, who became the head of the surviving inhabitants of Troy, was the son of Venus, who disgraced Juno in the dispute between the goddesses for the title of the most beautiful. Overwhelmed by the desire to avenge old grievances and prevent future ones, the goddess Juno rushed to the island of Aeolia, the homeland of clouds and fogs. There, in an immense cave, the king of the winds, Aeolus, kept “internecine winds and thunderous storms” chained in heavy chains. She began to ask Aeolus to unleash the winds and sink the Trojan ships in a terrible storm. Aeolus obediently fulfilled the request of the great goddess. He struck the wall of a huge cave of winds with his trident, and with a roar and howl they all rushed into the sea, raising the waves high, pushing them against each other, driving menacing clouds from everywhere, circling and scattering the Trojan ships like pitiful splinters. Aeneas, overwhelmed with horror, watched as his comrades in arms perished, as the Trojan ships disappeared one after another in the bubbling abyss. Occasionally, drowning swimmers, torn sails, and planks of ships appeared on the surface of the waves. And all this was swallowed up by the abyss of the sea without a trace. Three ships were thrown onto the sandbank by a huge wave, and the fragments of oars, masts and corpses of the Trojans were covered with sand, three were thrown onto the coastal rocks. The ruler of the seas, Neptune, disturbed by a frantic storm that broke out without his knowledge, rising to the surface and seeing the ships of Aeneas scattered across the waves, realized that this was Juno’s machinations. With a powerful blow of the trident, he tamed the fury of the waves and the madness of the winds and with a menacing cry: “Here I am!” - ordered them to immediately return to the cave to Eol. Neptune himself, rushing through the waves in a chariot drawn by hippocamps[*], calmed the agitated surface of the sea, with his trident he removed the ships that had settled in them from the rocks, carefully moved the rest from the shoal and commanded the waves to drive the Trojan ships to the coast of Africa. Here stood the magnificent city of Carthage, founded by Queen Dido, who fled from Sidon[**], where she suffered a grave grief - her beloved husband Sychaeus was treacherously killed near the altar by her own brother. The Trojans, led by Aeneas, landed on the shore, warmly greeted by the inhabitants of Carthage. The beautiful Dido hospitably opened the doors of her magnificent palace for them.

[* Hippocampi are aquatic horses from Neptune's team, with a fish tail and webbed feet instead of front legs with hooves.]

[** City in Phenicia.]

At a feast organized in honor of the surviving Trojans at the request of Dido, Aeneas began to talk about the capture of Troy by the Greeks thanks to the cunning of King Odysseus, the destruction of the ancient stronghold of the Trojans and his flight from the city engulfed in fire at the behest of the shadow of Hector, who appeared to Aeneas in a prophetic dream on the night of the treacherous attack of the Greeks on the sleeping Trojans. Hector's shadow ordered Aeneas to save the Trojan Penates from their enemies and bring his father, the elderly Anchises, and his little son Ascanius-Yul out of the city[*]. Aeneas passionately described to the excited Dido a terrible picture of a night battle in a city captured by enemies. Aeneas woke up from the groans and clanking of weapons that he heard through his sleep. Having climbed onto the roof of the house, he understood the meaning of the destructive gift of the Danaans (Greeks), and he also understood the terrible meaning of his dream. Seized with rage, Aeneas gathered young warriors around him and rushed at the head of them to a detachment of Greeks. Having destroyed their enemies, the Trojans put on the armor of the Greeks and destroyed many who were misled by this trick. However, the fire flared up more and more, the streets were filled with blood, corpses lay on the steps of churches and on the thresholds of houses. Crying, cries for help, the clang of weapons, screams of women and children - what could be more terrible! The flames of the conflagration, tearing out bloody scenes of murder and violence from the darkness of the night, aggravated the horror and confusion of the survivors. Aeneas, throwing on a lion's skin, put his father Anchises, who did not have the strength to walk, on the shoulders, and took little Ascanius by the hand. Together with his wife Creusa and several servants, he made his way to the gate and left the dying city. When they all reached the temple of Ceres, which stood far away on a hill, Aeneas noticed that Creusa was not among them. In desperation, leaving his companions in a safe place, he again made his way to Troy. There Aeneas saw a terrible picture of complete defeat. Both his own home and Priam's palace were plundered and set on fire by the Greeks. Women and children stood humbly, awaiting their fate; in the temple of Juno, treasures looted by the Greeks from sanctuaries and palaces were piled up. Wandering among the charred ruins, Aeneas tirelessly called upon Creusa, hoping that she would respond. He decided that his wife had gotten lost in the dark or had simply fallen behind on the way. Suddenly, the shadow of his wife appeared before Aeneas and quietly asked him not to grieve for her, since the gods had destined him for a kingdom in a foreign land, and his wife should be of royal descent. Creusa, looking at Aeneas with tenderness, bequeathed to him the care of his little son. Aeneas tried in vain to hold her in his arms; it dissipated in the air like a light mist.

[* The name Yul is not accidental, since he was considered the founder of the Julian family, to which the Roman emperor Octavian Augustus belonged, whose divine origin Virgil praised in his poem.]

Roman mythology is part of such a broad topic as. And we talked about reading, about the importance of books among citizens in those days in the article.

But let's return to.

First of all, it should be said that Roman religion and mythology were subordinated to the politics, moral principles of Rome and civic duty. Citizens should not have doubts about the structure of their lives and the difference between classes. All rulers are the chosen ones of the gods, and the sons of the gods. Therefore, they are closer to the celestials and they know better what life should be like. Many myths and legends of ancient Rome glorified heroism, they were epic. And, of course, there were mostly emperors.

It should be noted that if among the Greeks religion played a more divine meaning, then among the Romans the gods were an integral part of everyday life. They were necessary for plowing the land, sowing, successful germination, rich harvest, etc. The gods each patronized a certain type of activity among people, certain natural phenomena and needed sacrifices. In other words, rituals and cult occupied a central place in the religion of the ancient Romans. This could not but affect myths and legends.

This situation was partly due to the fact that religious scriptures were hidden from members of the Roman Senate. They were only accessible to the priests, who sometimes quoted the scriptures as recommendations for senators.

Many emperors supported poets, artists and sculptors who created their works based on myths and legends of ancient Rome. This contributed to the consolidation of power.

At the end of the 6th - beginning of the 5th century. BC. the ancient Romans began to borrow, assigning Roman names to the Greek gods. So, the Romans got the Greek Zeus, whose name changed to Jupiter, the Greek goddess Aphrodite turned into Venus, Ares became Mars, etc. At the same time, the famous Roman myth about the twin brothers Romulus and Remus appeared.

The essence of the legend is that the boys, even in infancy, tried to drown their uncle, the king of one of the Latin cities, in fear of losing his power when the boys turned into young men and gained strength. The newborns were placed in a basket and thrown into the Tiber. But the basket got caught on a tree branch and was found by the she-wolf. She fed the children with her own milk. The boys were later found by a shepherd. He raised and educated them. The brothers became strong and mighty warriors. They rebelled against the king and killed him. Romulus and Reme decided to found a new city. But a dispute arose between them over the location of the building and who would be the ruler in the future. The result was a quarrel, during which Romulus killed Reme. In the place where the she-wolf once found the brothers, Romulus founded a city and named it in his honor, i.e. Rome.

This myth is of great importance for historians, because... The Romans counted from the legendary year of the founding of Rome, i.e. 753 BC Now in one of the Roman museums you can see a statue of the same wolf that once fed two twin brothers. This statue stood on the Capitoline Hill in Rome for a long time. It should be added that the myth of Rome in Virgil appears as an idea about the destiny of Rome to justly rule the world.

To the famous myths and legends of ancient Rome you can also add the myth about the hero of the Trojan War Enes, the legend about the battle of the Horatii and Curiatii, the myth about how geese saved Rome.

Main sources myths and legends of ancient Rome are:

"Aeneid"
Livy, first history books
Ovid "Fasti"
Propertius, 4th book of elegies

In general, the Romans borrowed gods not only from the Greeks, but also from all the peoples they conquered. They worshiped foreign gods as well as their own. The culture of Ancient Rome was intertwined with the achievements of other peoples. It cannot be said that the Romans blindly copied other people’s legends in their works. Much was processed, some were brought to perfection and surpassed in beauty the original sources.

Read myths and legends of ancient Rome no less interesting than fairy tales. Moreover, many of them are still pearls of literary art, on the creation of which many of the greatest ancient Roman poets spent many years. For example, “The Aeneid” took 10 long years to write. Subsequently, this work inspired many artists and poets to create their masterpieces. It should be remembered that the entire Western European culture was based on ancient art until the 19th century.

Happy reading!

Mythology of Ancient Rome. Briefly

Everyone is somehow accustomed to combining the mythology of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. It seems that what else can be found among the Romans, who only knew how to give new names to foreign gods? Zeus - Jupiter, Hera - Juno, Ares - Mars, Aphrodite - Venus, just remember, and that's the end of it!

But this is just the tip of the iceberg, and you can try to dive deeper.

Who told?

It is extremely difficult to judge the most ancient period of Roman mythology, because scientists have to rely on much later sources.

However, the priestly books “Indigita-menti” are quite famous. Official records of the life of ancient Roman communities, records of ancient Greek authors in response to events in Hesperia (as they called ancient Italy), hymns of the colleges of the Arval brothers, etc. have been preserved.

The main sources are considered to be the first treaties of Rome with other cities and states, records of the college of pontiffs (priests), as well as records of the main events of each year, which later became known as the annals (Latin annus - year).

However, the main sources are considered to be Virgil's Aeneid, Livy's history books, Ovid's Fasti and the fourth book of Propertius.

Cosmogony and gods

For a long time it was believed that Roman mythology in its initial stages of development was reduced to animism. The worship of the souls of the dead was due to fear of their supernatural power, as was the worship of animate natural phenomena. The Romans never began or finished anything without securing the favor of the gods, without performing all the required rituals, without offering prayers and making the necessary sacrifices.

It was believed that the Romans distinguished only favorable or unfavorable non-personified forces - numina (numina), and there were a great many of them: the deity of sowing and growth, flowering and marriage, harvest and conception, walking and returning, etc., and their names were formed from the name of the action being performed.

Moreover, it was also believed that even the few personal gods that arose later did not have an anthropomorphic embodiment, but only symbols: for example, Jupiter is a stone, Mars is a spear, Vesta is fire.

In the primitive communal period, the cult of ancestors, honored in every clan, was of great importance: the Penates, the patrons of the hearth and clan, and the Lares, the patrons of the home, family and the entire community as a whole.

However, although the ancient cosmogony of the Romans still remains a mystery, researchers gradually began to find evidence that Roman mythology itself went through approximately the same stages of development as other peoples during the primitive communal period.

The most ancient triad of deities was identified: Jupiter (who supplanted the original creator of the world, Janus) is the embodiment of religiosity and priesthood, Mars is the military hypostasis, Quirin is the economic hypostasis.

Janus and Vesta guarded the doors and the family hearth, the Lares protected the field and the house, Palaeus the pastures, Saturn the crops, Ceres the growth of cereals, Pomona the tree fruits, and Cone and Opa the harvest.

In addition, according to the conclusions of scientists, the Romans believed that people as a family trace their origins to sacred trees, oaks, and therefore groves were dedicated to each numina deity, where rituals were performed and sacrifices were made, and the trees themselves played a very important role in life states. For example, sacrifices were made to the oak tree on the Capitoline Hill, and the withering of any fig tree, the tree under which, according to legend, the she-wolf fed the future founders of Rome, Romulus and Remus, was perceived as an extremely formidable and unfavorable sign.

Since the cult of animals was highly developed, the interpretation of their behavior and the study of sacrifices, or, more simply, fortune-telling, so widespread in Ancient Rome, became of great importance.

Justified...by the state

What is the uniqueness of Roman mythology in comparison with other mythological traditions?

If you think about it, it becomes obvious: most of the ancient myths about the gods did not survive; they were gradually but steadily replaced by myths about heroes.

The very structure of Roman society, in which individual communities sought to unite into large urban conglomerates, in which politics played an increasingly greater role with each century, and the state became an intermediary between the citizen and the gods - this is the originality of Ancient Rome.

Myths telling about heroes are a reflection of the deep mutual penetration of history and myth in the minds of the Romans. A person’s life is filled with the divine presence, every moment of it a person is responsible for his actions.

And if they are performed for the benefit of the community, then the gods are pleased with you.

Such are the myths about the Sabine women, Numa Pompilius, Lucretia, Scaevola, Coriolanus and many others.

Of course, it cannot be denied that Roman culture constantly absorbed the culture of the peoples around it. Yes, the Romans renamed and adopted almost the entire Greek pantheon, made many borrowings from the Etruscans and other peoples, but there was a very simple reason for this. Rome was a military state, which, through conquests, constantly expanded its territories and assimilated the culture of the conquered peoples.

Roman heroic myth explained the past, justified the present, and guided the future. Despite some initial primitiveness, he made a person’s life filled with meaning: service to the fatherland.

And what is the end?

The Roman religion, open and constantly changing under external influences, simply could not develop a single concept about the end of the world.

Like any military state, Rome was doomed to gradual decline and destruction or to inevitable transformation. Roman mythology, having gone through various stages of development - from the adoption of the Greek pantheon to the formation of the cult of the emperor, eventually became... a kind of basis for the victory of Christianity as a religion.

The myth of the Roman left-hander

In 509 BC. e. The Etruscan king Lare Porsenna declared war on Rome. A huge army invaded the country and was moving closer and closer to the capital. A little more - and Rome would have been taken by storm.

Then one of the young Roman patricians, Gaius Mucius Cordus, decided to infiltrate the Etruscan camp and kill their king. Guy knew the Etruscan language and, dressed in the clothes of enemies, easily entered the camp, but he could not understand which of those sitting at the main tent was King Porsenna. He could not ask, for fear of giving himself away.

Then the young man decided that the most elegantly dressed person was the enemy ruler. He attacked him and stabbed him with a dagger. But alas! It turned out to be just one of the king’s courtiers, the greatest lover of outfits and decorations.

Gaius Mucius was immediately captured, but refused to answer questions. Then they began to threaten him with torture. Seeing a tripod with a blazing fire, the young man himself approached it, put his right hand in the flame and silently, without making a sound, looked at Porsenna until his hand was charred.

Amazed by the courage and incredible stamina of the patrician, Porsenna exclaimed: “If all the Romans are so persistent, then it is impossible to defeat them.” He released Mucius, who from then on began to bear the nickname Scaevola (Left-handed), and decided to begin negotiations on a truce.

Ancient Rome is not just the most powerful of the civilizations of antiquity, it is an entire era of world history and culture, which lasted from the eighth century BC to the fifth century AD. This greatest state, which during the period of its greatest power covered territories from the north of England to the north of Africa, from Gibraltar to the Persian Gulf, was named after its main city - Rome. Once a small settlement of outcasts and renegades, founded by the legendary demigod Romulus on the banks of the Tiber River, Rome eventually became the most brilliant creation of the hands of antiquity and, rightfully receiving the title of “Eternal City”, became the heart of a huge empire. It is there, in the capital of the world, that one should look for the quintessence of Roman culture, for which, in fact, this book was written. Therefore, throughout the entire story we will not be able to move far from the walls of the Eternal City.

The body of historical and cultural information about Rome is colossal; under the same cover you will find only a brief overview of Roman beliefs and legends. Roman culture is specific and interesting in that, having absorbed and absorbed for centuries the customs and morals of conquered peoples, it retained its own core and its own unique spirit under all these layers. By selecting stories for this book, we intended to acquaint the reader who has not previously come into contact with this era with the pantheon of Roman gods and the beliefs of the Romans, with the logic and ethics of Roman spiritual culture, with the most famous or characteristic legends and traditions of Rome. Everything written below is a presentation of the works of famous ancient authors, commented as necessary using the works of famous historians and, for ease of perception, divided into complete essays and sections. We hope that this book will be just the first step on the long path of your acquaintance with the majestic and harsh era of Ancient Rome.

When selecting subjects for further narration, we tried, firstly, to dwell only on what could really interest the modern reader, and secondly, to focus on key points in understanding Roman life: the thinking, behavior, morals and customs of the people of that era. It also seemed important to us that it was necessary to properly, from the perspective of that distant time, reveal well-known plots that were later repeatedly used in world culture.

The first section of our book is entirely devoted to the characteristics and evolution of Roman beliefs, the relationship of the Romans with the gods and spirits of the vast pantheon. The second and third sections contain a collection of the most famous, interesting and characteristic Roman legends and traditions, correlated with the outline of historical events. The last section covers a short, but probably the most illuminated period of Roman history - the century of the first emperors, where we, to the best of our ability, analyze episodes that may already be known to the reader, filling them with important details and comments that allow a more objective look at the heroes and the era .

We hope that for an inquisitive reader, open to everything new, this book will bring a lot of interesting information, extraordinary observations and, of course, many hours of fascinating reading.

On the way to the temple. Artist L. Alma-Tadema

Pantheon and beliefs of Ancient Rome

About Roman mythology

Before we begin the story about Roman myths, we should say a few words about the essence of ancient Roman mythology as such. We often perceive Roman mythology as borrowed from the Greeks, which is hardly true. In fact, the ancient Roman religion is very original and all the Greek influence on it is rather late, although impressive. The Roman pantheon is extremely vast and complex in its composition and the functions of the deities included in it, while various aspects of beliefs permeated all spheres of life of the ancient Romans.

The Roman religion developed over many centuries as the Roman state grew - from a small city to a huge empire. Let's try to briefly and superficially understand various aspects of the formation of the classical Roman pantheon - the one with which we are all most likely familiar from Greek mythology.

The most ancient objects of religious veneration among the Romans were spirits - the patrons of the family, whose cult is older than the city of Rome itself. The Romans themselves believed that the veneration of these spirits came to Rome from Lavinium and Alba Longa, more ancient cities of Italy. Such patron spirits include manas - the shadows of the dead, protecting their family after death, the household deities of the penates and lares. Penates, Lares and Manes did not have their own names, were not personified and were revered by the Romans as a kind of nameless multitude. They will be discussed in more detail in the relevant sections.

The cult of the patrons of the clan had, of course, a private, family character. Often the patron of the clan was a certain legendary ancestor, for example, the Yuliev clan honored Yul, the son of Aeneas, in this capacity. As the state formed and the clan organization lost its significance, some clan gods began to be revered within the whole state, changing the functions attributed to them. There is an opinion, for example, that the cult of Faun, the cheerful god - patron of shepherds, originally belonged to the families of the Fabii and Quinctilians.

Like most ancient peoples known to us, the Romans also deified streams and springs. Like the Penates and Lares, these forces were represented by the Romans as a nameless multitude of spirits. The Romans revered a group of such water spirits under the name “stones.” The legendary Roman king Numa Pompilius dedicated a spring in Rome to the stones; small bronze chapels were built in their honor in the groves, where water and milk were sacrificed. Their analogues, in some way, were the Greek nymphs, and subsequently the stones were identified with the Greek muses, goddesses of the arts and sciences.

The most important starting point for the formation of the classical Roman pantheon are the so-called agrarian cults: rituals and beliefs associated with agriculture and cattle breeding. Many of the most important gods of the Roman pantheon, who received other functions in the future, trace their origins precisely to agrarian cults. For example, Mars, the god of war in the classical era, in ancient times was considered the god of fertilization, the patron saint of agriculture and cattle breeding; Venus, later identified with the Greek Aphrodite and transformed into the goddess of love and beauty, was originally the deity of gardening and viticulture.

To a large extent, the complex composition of the Roman pantheon was generated by the diversity of groups that made up the Roman community: it included Latin, Sabine and Etruscan tribes. Each tribe, each clan brought their own deities into the Roman pantheon. Over time, the Roman state grew, and when its territory included new lands, the Roman pantheon acquired new gods from all over Italy.

It should be noted that ancient Roman mythology, in comparison with Greek, is rather poor in vivid images of gods and memorable myths about their deeds. We have already mentioned the veneration of nameless multitudes of spirits; cults of such deities as Peace, Hope, Valor, and Justice were also common. These abstract concepts were practically impersonal; they could not even be considered real personifications. Nevertheless, sacrifices were made in their honor and temples were built.

It is curious that some of the ancient Roman gods did not have a specific gender, for example, the ancient deity of the shepherds Pales is mentioned as both a god and a goddess. Often the priests themselves were not sure which gender the deity belonged to, and addressed him “sive deus, sive dea” - “either a god or a goddess.”

The mythology of Ancient Rome was not just a collection of myths and legends. It was a special cultural form with the help of which in ancient times they learned about the world around them, accumulated and passed on valuable life experience to subsequent generations. Despite the great influence of neighboring cultures, it was able to maintain its originality.

Roman mythology

Roman mythology includes traditional stories associated with the legendary emergence of Ancient Rome, which are reflected in the literature and visual arts of the ancient Romans.

The main feature of Roman mythology was that it was completely subordinate to the politics, civic duty and moral principles that reigned in Ancient Rome. Ordinary residents should not have had a shadow of doubt about their way of life or the large difference between classes. They had to firmly understand that every ruler is a divine chosen one, and therefore it is better for him to know what the structure of life should be.

For the ancient Romans, deities were an integral part of their daily life. With their help, they plowed the lands, sown them, and eagerly awaited shoots and a rich harvest. The gods provided patronage to each type of activity, and in return demanded sacrifices.

Rice. 1. Rite in Ancient Rome.

The Romans attached great importance to ritual ceremonies. So, if during the ritual someone accidentally sneezed, the whole process began from the very beginning. Sometimes the ceremony had to be repeated several dozen times in a row until it was perfect.

Myths and legends of Ancient Rome

After the subjugation of Greece in the 2nd century BC. e., Roman mythology, due to its own poverty, underwent some changes. The Romans gradually adopted their multifaceted and highly imaginative mythology from the Greeks, and “tried it on” to their gods.

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The gods of Ancient Rome bore a striking resemblance to the Greek celestials. This is easy to see by comparing the pantheon of the Romans and the Greeks:

(Zeus among the Greeks) is the supreme deity, the father of all gods, the lord of lightning, thunder and the entire sky;

Rice. 2. Jupiter.

Volcano (Hephaestus among the Greeks) - the god of fire, patron of the blacksmith's craft;
Neptune (Poseidon among the Greeks) - sea god;
Mercury (Hermes among the Greeks) - god of trade;
Mars (Ares among the Greeks) - a militant deity;
Venus (Aphrodite among the Greeks) - goddess of love and beauty;
Juno (Hera among the Greeks) - the wife of Jupiter, the patroness of marriage and the hearth;
Minerva (Athena among the Greeks) - the goddess of various crafts and wisdom;
Diana (Artemis among the Greeks) - goddess of the hunt.

These gods were the main advisers and assistants of Jupiter and were responsible for the preservation of the world order. In addition to the main gods, there was a whole galaxy of deities of lower rank.

In addition to deities, the ancient Romans treated plants, birds, and wild animals with great trepidation. Thus, one of the popular ancient Roman myths tells about a sacred tree - a fig tree, under the crown of which a she-wolf nursed the brothers Remus and Romulus.