Mathematics
Astronomy how the world was created presentation. History of the development of astronomy. what is astronomy? astronomy studies the structure of the universe, physical nature, origin and evolution of celestial bodies, etc. Sections of astronomy. Connections with other sciences

Astronomy how the world was created presentation. History of the development of astronomy. what is astronomy? astronomy studies the structure of the universe, physical nature, origin and evolution of celestial bodies, etc. Sections of astronomy. Connections with other sciences

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Astronomy is the most ancient among the natural sciences. It was highly developed by the Babylonians and Greeks - much more than physics, chemistry and technology. In ancient times and the Middle Ages, it was not only purely scientific curiosity that prompted calculations, copying, and correction of astronomical tables, but above all the fact that they were necessary for astrology.

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In Ancient China 2 thousand years BC. The apparent movements of the Sun and Moon were so well studied that Chinese astronomers could predict the occurrence of solar and lunar eclipses.

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The Ptolemaic world system completes the stage of development of ancient Greek astronomy. The development of feudalism and the spread of the Christian religion entailed a significant decline in the natural sciences, and the development of astronomy in Europe slowed down for many centuries. During the Dark Middle Ages, astronomers were concerned only with observing the apparent movements of the planets and reconciling these observations with the accepted geocentric system of Ptolemy.

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During this period, astronomy received rational development only among the Arabs and peoples Central Asia and the Caucasus, in the works of outstanding astronomers of that time. Al-Battani (850-929) Biruni (973-1048) Ulugbek (1394-1449)

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The development of trade and navigation urgently required the improvement of astronomical knowledge and, in particular, the theory of planetary motion. The development of productive forces and the requirements of practice, on the one hand, and the accumulated observational material, on the other, prepared the ground for the revolution in astronomy, which was carried out by the great Polish scientist Nikolai Copernicus (1473-1543), who developed his heliocentric system of the world, published in the year of his death.

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New astronomy has the opportunity to study not only visible, but also actual movements celestial bodies. Her numerous and brilliant successes in this area were crowned in the middle of the 19th century. the discovery of the planet Neptune, and in our time - the calculation of the orbits of artificial celestial bodies.

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Astrophysics arose, which received especially great development in the 20th century. and continues to develop rapidly today. In the 40s XX century Radio astronomy began to develop, and in 1957, qualitatively new research methods based on the use of artificial celestial bodies were launched, which later led to the emergence of a virtually new branch of astrophysics - X-ray astronomy

What is astronomy? Astronomy (from the Greek στρο “star” and νόμος “law”) is the science of the Universe, studying the location, movement, structure, origin and development of celestial bodies and systems. Astronomy studies the structure of the Universe, physical nature, the origin and evolution of celestial bodies and the systems formed by them. Astronomy also explores fundamental properties the Universe surrounding us. As a science, astronomy is based primarily on observations. Unlike physicists, astronomers are deprived of the opportunity to conduct experiments. Almost all information about celestial bodies is brought to us by electromagnetic radiation. Only in the last 40 years have individual worlds begun to be studied directly: to probe the atmospheres of planets, to study lunar and Martian soil. The scale of the observable Universe is enormous and the usual units of measuring distances - meters and kilometers - are of little use here. Others are introduced instead.

An astronomical unit is used in the study of the solar system. This is the size of the semi-major axis of the Earth's orbit: 1 AU=149 million km. Larger units of length - light year and parsec, as well as their derivatives - are needed in stellar astronomy and cosmology. A light year is the distance a light beam travels in a vacuum in one Earth year. Parsec is historically associated with measuring distances to stars by their parallax and is 3.263 light years= a. e. Astronomy is closely connected with other sciences, primarily with physics and mathematics, the methods of which are widely used in it. But astronomy is also an indispensable testing ground on which many are tested. physical theories. Space is the only place where matter exists at temperatures of hundreds of millions of degrees and almost at absolute zero, in the void of vacuum and in neutron stars. IN Lately the achievements of astronomy began to be used in geology and biology, geography and history.

Astronomy studies the fundamental laws of nature and the evolution of our world. Therefore it is especially great philosophical meaning. In fact, it determines people's worldview. The oldest of sciences. Several thousand years BC in the valleys large rivers(Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, Indus and Ganges, Yangtze and Yellow River) landowners settled. The calendar, compiled by the priests of the Sun and Moon, began to play the most important role in their lives. The priests carried out observations of the luminaries in ancient observatories, which were also temples. They are studied by archaeoastronomy. Archaeologists have found quite a few similar observatories.

The simplest of them - megaliths - were one (menhirs) or several (dolmens, cromlechs) stones located in strict order relative to each other. Megaliths marked the place of sunrise and sunset at certain times of the year. One of the most famous buildings of antiquity is Stonehenge, located in Southern England. Its main function is to observe the Sun and Moon, determine the days of the winter and summer solstices, predict lunar and solar eclipses.

Astronomy of ancient civilizations About 4 thousand years BC. One of the oldest civilizations on Earth, the Egyptian, arose in the Nile Valley. Another thousand years later, after the unification of two kingdoms (Upper and Lower Egypt), a powerful state emerged here. By that time, which is called the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians already knew the potter's wheel, knew how to smelt copper, and invented writing. It was during this era that the pyramids were built. At the same time, Egyptian calendars probably appeared: lunar-stellar– religious and schematic – civil. The astronomy of Egyptian civilization began precisely with the Nile. Egyptian priest-astronomers noticed that shortly before the water began to rise, two events occurred: the summer solstice and the first appearance of Sirius on the morning star after a 70-day absence from the sky. The Egyptians named Sirius, the brightest star in the sky, after the goddess Sopdet. The Greeks pronounced this name as "Sothis". By that time in Egypt there was moon calendar out of 12 months of 29 or 30 days - from new moon to new moon. To make its months correspond to the seasons of the year, a 13th month had to be added every two or three years. Sirius helped determine the timing of this month's insertion. The first day of the lunar year was considered the first day of the new moon, which occurred after the return of this star.

Such an “observational” calendar with irregular additions of the month was poorly suited for a state where strict accounting and order existed. Therefore, for administrative and civil needs, the so-called schematic calendar was introduced. In it, the year was divided into 12 months of 30 days with the addition of an additional 5 days at the end of the year, i.e. contained 365 days. The Egyptians knew that the true year is a quarter of a day longer than the introduced one, and it is enough to add six additional days instead of five in every fourth, leap year, to harmonize it with the seasons. But this was not done. For 40 years, i.e. the life of one generation, the calendar moved forward by 10 days, not such a noticeable amount, and the scribes who managed the household could easily adapt to the slow changes in the dates of the seasons. After some time, another lunar calendar appeared in Egypt, adapted to the sliding civil calendar. In it, additional months were inserted so as to keep the beginning of the year not near the moment of the appearance of Sirius, but near the beginning civil year. This "wandering" lunar calendar was used along with the other two.

Ancient Egypt had a complex mythology with many gods. The astronomical ideas of the Egyptians were closely related to it. According to their beliefs, in the middle of the world was Geb, one of the ancestors of the gods, the breadwinner and protector of people. He personified the Earth. Geb's wife and sister, Nut, was Heaven itself. She was called the Huge Mother of the Stars and the One Who Gives Birth to the Gods. It was believed that she swallows the stars every morning and gives birth to them again every evening. Because of this habit of hers, there was once a quarrel between Nut and Geb. Then their father Shu, Air, raised the Sky above the Earth and separated the spouses. Nut was the mother of Ra (Sun) and the stars and ruled them. Ra in turn created Thoth (the Moon) as his deputy in the night sky. According to another myth, Ra floats along the celestial Nile and illuminates the Earth, and in the evening descends into the Duat (hell). There he travels along the underground Nile, fighting the forces of darkness in order to reappear on the horizon in the morning.

In our time, historical science believes that the beginning of the Ancient Chinese civilization coincides in time with the accession of the First Dynasty of the Early Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, that is, it actually dates back to the end of the 4th millennium BC. The development of astronomy in China can be traced back to ancient times. In general, the interest of the inhabitants of this country in studying everything in the world is a national character trait. This also applies to astronomy. So, archaeologists found painted ceramics that are years old. It contains lunary and solar symbols, as well as ornaments associated with the lunar calendar. On oracle bones and turtle shells of the Shang-Yin era (second half of the 2nd millennium BC) the names of some constellations and calendar signs are found. Some solar eclipses are also mentioned. The practice of keeping records of celestial phenomena continued throughout all periods of ancient Chinese history. The number of accumulated handwritten documents with astronomical content is the largest in comparison with those available in any other civilization.

Like almost all primitive peoples, the Chinese have used a lunar calendar since time immemorial, that is, a method of counting days according to the phases of the moon. Since a month of 2930 days was considered long as a measure of time intervals ancient life, it was quite natural to divide it into 34 parts. In China, as in other agrarian civilizations ancient world, the formation of the lunar calendar was most closely related to the economic needs of the agricultural population. The Chinese character time (shi), which is found already in the most ancient texts, graphically expresses the idea of the growth of seeds in the ground under the sun. And later, the concept of time in China never lost touch with the idea of qualitative stage-by-stage, natural duration inherent in the life process. Even in Ancient China, the phases of the moon were chosen as the main unit of time. In the Chinese lunar calendar, the beginning of the month coincides with the new moon, and the middle with the full moon. The quarter phases of the moon are also distinguished as cardinal points of the lunar month, which have their own characteristics. Twelve lunar months form a year. Almost all traditional holidays of China and its neighboring countries are still oriented according to the lunar months.

The practice of keeping records of celestial phenomena continued throughout all periods of ancient Chinese history. The number of accumulated handwritten documents of astronomical content is the largest in comparison with those available in any other civilization. Around the 3rd millennium BC. e. Chinese astronomers divided the sky into 28 constellation areas in which the Sun, Moon and planets moved. Then they highlighted Milky Way, calling it a phenomenon of unknown nature. The founder of the Zhou dynasty, Wu-wang (ruled, according to some sources, in BC) ordered the construction of an astronomical tower in Gaochengzheng. This was the first observatory in China. Starting from the Chunqiu era (BC), the Chinese recorded in writing the appearance of comets, which were called “broom stars” in China and from time immemorial were considered harbingers of misfortune. Later they appeared detailed descriptions and sketches. It was noticed that the tail of a comet is always located at a distance from the Sun. In the chronicle called "Chunqiu" from the same period, 37 solar eclipses were recorded over a period of 242 years. Modern scientists have confirmed 33 of them. The earliest occurred on February 22, 720 BC. e.

Astronomical observations were not something unusual for the inhabitants of ancient Mesopotamia (Babylon). It is difficult to construct a solar calendar near the equator, but observations of the Moon are much easier, so the Babylonians used the phases of the Moon to construct a calendar, although they were forced to reduce it to the solar one in order to use it in agriculture and for religious purposes. The ancient Sumerian calendar consisted of 12 months of 29 and 30 days and contained 354 or 355 days. At the same time, a seven-day week was introduced, each day of which was dedicated to one of the luminaries (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Moon and Sun). In Babylon, careful observations were made of the movements of the Sun and Moon. Their position was plotted on a map divided into 12 sectors (later called the zodiac). The stars were cataloged, solar and lunar eclipses, observations of the planets were carried out, the movement of Venus was especially carefully studied. A detailed diagram of the movement of the Sun and Moon was drawn up, which served as the basis for an accurate calendar and made it possible to predict eclipses. A similar scheme was used to determine the positions of the planets. Astrology played an important role, which studied the influence of heavenly bodies on earthly affairs. The ancient Babylonians knew saros - a period of time (about 18 years) through which the Sun, Moon and Earth return to the same relative position.

Due to the common features of ancient Indian civilization with ancient cultures Babylon and Egypt and the presence of contacts between them, although not regular, it can be assumed that a number of astronomical phenomena known in Babylon and Egypt were also known in India. Apparently, our information about the science of the ancient Indians will expand significantly as a result of deciphering the existing inscriptions. Much information on astronomy can be found in the existing religious-philosophical direction of Vedic literature dating back to the 3rd millennium BC. e. Although these writings are not specifically devoted to the exact sciences, much evidence regarding astronomy can be found in them. It contains, in particular, information about solar eclipses, intercalations with the help of the thirteenth month, a list of nakshatras of lunar stations; finally, cosmogonic hymns dedicated to the goddess of the Earth, the glorification of the Sun, the personification of time as primordial power, also have a certain relationship to astronomy.

The ancient Greeks imagined the Earth as a flat or convex disk surrounded by an ocean, although Plato and Aristotle already spoke about the sphericity of the Earth. Aristotle observed the Moon and noticed that at certain phases it looks like a ball illuminated from one side by the Sun. This means that the Moon has the shape of a ball. He further concluded that the shadow covering the Moon during eclipses can only belong to the Earth, and since the shadow is round, then the Earth must be round. Aristotle also pointed to another fact that proves the sphericity of the Earth: the fact that the constellations change position when moving north or south. After all, if the Earth were flat, then the stars would remain in place. The idea that the Earth revolves around the Sun was expressed by Aristarchus of Samos. He tried to calculate the distance between the Earth, the Sun and the Moon, as well as the ratio of their sizes. Aristarchus calculated that the Sun is 19 times farther from the Earth than the Moon (according to modern data - 400 times further), and the volume of the Sun is 300 times the volume of the Earth. Then I wondered how the huge Sun could revolve around the small Earth, and concluded that it was the Earth that revolved around the Sun. Aristarchus also explained why the change of day and night occurs: the Earth simply rotates not only around the Sun, but around its own axis. The Greeks used a lunisolar calendar. The years in it consisted of 12 lunar months of 29 and 30 days; in total there were 354 days in the year with the insertion, approximately once every 3 years, of an additional month. As the calendar became more streamlined, an 8-year cycle (octaetherides) was introduced, in which a month was inserted in the 3rd, 5th and 8th year (in Athens its introduction is attributed to Solon in 594 BC); in 432 BC e. the astronomer Meton proposed a more accurate 19-year cycle with 7 intercalary months, but this cycle came into use slowly and never fully took root. The Olympics in the calendar sense were 4-year intervals between Greek sports competitions held in Olympia. They were used in ancient Greek chronology. Olympic Games was held on the days of the first full moon after the summer solstice, in the month of Hecatombeyone, which corresponds to modern July. According to calculations, the first Olympic Games took place on July 17, 776 BC. e. At that time, they used a lunar calendar with additional months of the Metonic cycle.

Geocentric system of the world In the 2nd century BC. Greek scientist Ptolemy put forward his “world system”. He tried to explain the structure of the Universe, taking into account the apparent complexity of the movement of the planets. Considering the Earth to be spherical, and its dimensions are insignificant compared to the distances to the planets and especially to the stars. Ptolemy, however, following Aristotle, argued that the Earth is the fixed center of the Universe; his world system was called geocentric. The Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and stars move around the Earth according to Ptolemy (in order of distance from the Earth). But if the movement of the Moon, Sun, and stars is circular, then the movement of the planets is much more complicated.

Each of the planets, according to Ptolemy, does not move around the Earth, but around a certain point. This point, in turn, moves in a circle, in the center of which is the Earth. Ptolemy called the circle described by the planet around a moving point an epicycle, and the circle along which a point moves near the Earth was called a deferent. This false system was recognized for almost years. It was also recognized by the Christian religion. Christianity bases its worldview on the biblical legend of the creation of the world by God in 6 days. According to this legend, the Earth is the “concentration” of the Universe, and the celestial bodies were created in order to illuminate the Earth and decorate the firmament. Christianity mercilessly persecuted any deviation from these views. The world system of Aristotle - Ptolemy, which placed the Earth at the center of the universe, perfectly corresponded to Christian doctrine. The tables compiled by Ptolemy made it possible to determine in advance the position of the planets in the sky. But over time, astronomers discovered a discrepancy between the observed positions of the planets and the pre-calculated ones. For centuries, they thought that the Ptolemaic system of the world was simply not perfect enough and, in an attempt to improve it, they introduced new and new combinations of circular movements for each planet.

The Julian calendar ("old style") is a calendar adopted in Europe and Russia before the transition to the Gregorian calendar. Introduced into the Roman Republic by Julius Caesar on January 1, 45 BC, or 708 from the founding of Rome. Since a year does not have exactly 365 days, but several more, the idea was to establish a leap year: the duration of every fourth year was set at 366 days. Caesar decided to establish a year of 365 days, starting on January 1, to limit the power of the pontiff - the high priest, who set the length of the year arbitrarily, lengthening and shortening different years for personal purposes. The Julian calendar was the official calendar in Europe until 1582 AD. e., when it was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII into the Catholic Gregorian calendar. Orthodox Church(Eastern Rite Christians) still uses the Julian calendar.

In all of Mesoamerica there was no people who would have achieved more significant success in the sciences than the Mayans, a people of extraordinary abilities, managed. The high level of civilization was determined primarily by astronomy and mathematics. In this area, they truly found themselves in pre-Columbian America beyond any competition. Their achievements are not comparable to any others. The Mayans surpassed even their European contemporaries in these sciences. At least 18 observatories are currently known to exist. The priests, who made up the highest stratum of society, kept the great-great-grandfather's astronomical knowledge about the movement of the stars, the Sun, the Moon, Venus and Mars. Based on centuries of observations, they calculated the length of the solar year with an accuracy superior to the Gregorian calendar that we currently use. According to their calculations, the length of this year was equal to days; according to the Gregorian calendar it is days, and according to modern astronomical data it is days. They knew how to calculate the onset of solar eclipses and came close to understanding the 19-year Metonic cycle. In 682, the astronomer priests of Copan introduced a formula according to which 149 lunar months were equal to 4400 days. This formula was soon adopted in almost all cities of the classical period. According to it, the length of the lunar month was equal to days on average - a figure very close to the data of our astronomers (days). The cycle of the planet Venus with an average length of days was used as a calendar; the leaves of the Dresden manuscript contain a remarkable calendar of Venus, correct for a total of 384 years. The Mayans also knew other planets: Mars, Saturn, Mercury, Jupiter. However, here, as in other astronomical issues, the opinions of researchers differ so greatly from each other that only one thing becomes clear: the work has only just begun. Astronomical observations were made by the Maya from the tops of their pyramidal temples with the naked eye; the only instrument may have been two crossed sticks to fix the observation point. At least, similar tools are depicted in the Nuttall, Selden and Bodley manuscripts near the priests observing the stars. In addition, there were special architectural complexes designed to determine the turning points of the seasons

In all of Mesoamerica there was no people who would have achieved more significant success in the sciences than the Mayans, a people of extraordinary abilities, managed. The high level of civilization was determined primarily by astronomy and mathematics. In this area, they truly found themselves in pre-Columbian America beyond any competition. Their achievements are not comparable to any others. The Mayans surpassed even their European contemporaries in these sciences. At least 18 observatories are currently known to exist. The priests, who made up the highest stratum of society, kept the great-great-grandfather's astronomical knowledge about the movement of the stars, the Sun, the Moon, Venus and Mars. Based on centuries of observations, they calculated the length of the solar year with an accuracy superior to the Gregorian calendar that we currently use. According to their calculations, the length of this year was equal to days; according to the Gregorian calendar it is days, and according to modern astronomical data it is days. They knew how to calculate the onset of solar eclipses and came close to understanding the 19-year Metonic cycle. In 682, the astronomer priests of Copan introduced a formula according to which 149 lunar months were equal to 4400 days. This formula was soon adopted in almost all cities of the classical period. According to it, the length of the lunar month was equal to days on average - a figure very close to the data of our astronomers (days). Hundreds of years ago in ancient Rus' The world system created in the 6th century by the Byzantine monk Cosmas Indicoplov was especially popular. He assumed that the Earth main part The universe, which has the shape of a rectangle, is washed by the ocean, and on its four sides rise steep walls, on which the crystal sky rests. According to the teachings of Kozma, all heavenly bodies are set in motion by angels and are created to illuminate and warm the Earth. In ancient Kievan Rus did not learn to predict astronomical phenomena, such as a solar eclipse or the appearance of comets, but ancient Russian chronicles provide detailed descriptions of these events. In particular, in the chronicles of Kievan Rus, as relatively northern state, are described in quite detail northern lights, which allowed modern astronomers to be convinced of the constancy of the solar cycle.

In all of Mesoamerica there was no people who would have achieved more significant success in the sciences than the Mayans, a people of extraordinary abilities, managed. The high level of civilization was determined primarily by astronomy and mathematics. In this area, they truly found themselves in pre-Columbian America beyond any competition. Their achievements are not comparable to any others. The Mayans surpassed even their European contemporaries in these sciences. At least 18 observatories are currently known to exist. The priests, who made up the highest stratum of society, kept the great-great-grandfather's astronomical knowledge about the movement of the stars, the Sun, the Moon, Venus and Mars. Based on centuries of observations, they calculated the length of the solar year with an accuracy superior to the Gregorian calendar that we currently use. According to their calculations, the length of this year was equal to days; according to the Gregorian calendar it is days, and according to modern astronomical data it is days. They knew how to calculate the onset of solar eclipses and came close to understanding the 19-year Metonic cycle. In 682, the astronomer priests of Copan introduced a formula according to which 149 lunar months were equal to 4400 days. This formula was soon adopted in almost all cities of the classical period. According to it, the length of the lunar month was equal to days on average - a figure very close to the data of our astronomers (days). The history of the development of astronomy in ancient Spain is first associated with Carthage (New Carthage, Cartagena), which was founded approximately 227 BC. e. Since the Carthaginian civilization was in many ways the bearer of ancient Greek culture, the astronomical knowledge in understanding the structure of the world of this civilization was not much different from that of the ancient Greeks. With the establishment of Roman rule in Spain in 218 BC. e. – 17 AD e. Roman law, including the Julian calendar, is introduced on the territory of Spain.

Pupils 10 "k" GBOUSOSH 1908 Burmistrova Tatyana and Kozlova Maria

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HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY DEVELOPMENT

What is astronomy? Astronomy studies the structure of the Universe, the physical nature, origin and evolution of celestial bodies and the systems formed by them. Astronomy also studies the fundamental properties of the Universe around us. As a science, astronomy is based primarily on observations. Unlike physicists, astronomers are deprived of the opportunity to conduct experiments. Almost all information about celestial bodies is brought to us by electromagnetic radiation. Only in the last 40 years have individual worlds begun to be studied directly: to probe the atmospheres of planets, to study lunar and Martian soil. The scale of the observable Universe is enormous and the usual units of measuring distances - meters and kilometers - are of little use here. Others are introduced instead.

An astronomical unit is used in the study of the solar system. This is the size of the semi-major axis of the Earth's orbit: 1 AU=149 million km. Larger units of length - the light year and parsec, as well as their derivatives - are needed in stellar astronomy and cosmology. A light year is the distance a light beam travels in a vacuum in one Earth year. Parsec is historically associated with measuring distances to stars by their parallax and is 3.263 light years = 206,265 AU. e. Astronomy is closely connected with other sciences, primarily with physics and mathematics, the methods of which are widely used in it. But astronomy is also an indispensable testing ground on which many physical theories are tested. Space is the only place where matter exists at temperatures of hundreds of millions of degrees and almost at absolute zero, in the void of vacuum and in neutron stars. Recently, the achievements of astronomy have begun to be used in geology and biology, geography and history.

Astronomy studies the fundamental laws of nature and the evolution of our world. Therefore, its philosophical significance is especially great. In fact, it determines people's worldview. The oldest of sciences. Several thousand years BC, landowners settled in the valleys of large rivers (Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, Indus and Ganges, Yangtze and Yellow River). The calendar, compiled by the priests of the Sun and Moon, began to play the most important role in their lives. The priests carried out observations of the luminaries in ancient observatories, which were also temples. They are studied by archaeoastronomy. Archaeologists have found quite a few similar observatories.

Astronomy of ancient civilizations About 4 thousand years BC. One of the oldest civilizations on Earth, the Egyptian, arose in the Nile Valley. Another thousand years later, after the unification of two kingdoms (Upper and Lower Egypt), a powerful state emerged here. By that time, which is called the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians already knew the potter's wheel, knew how to smelt copper, and invented writing. It was during this era that the pyramids were built. At the same time, the Egyptian calendars probably appeared: lunar-stellar - religious and schematic - civil. The astronomy of Egyptian civilization began precisely with the Nile. Egyptian priest-astronomers noticed that shortly before the water began to rise, two events occurred: the summer solstice and the first appearance of Sirius on the morning star after a 70-day absence from the sky. The Egyptians named Sirius, the brightest star in the sky, after the goddess Sopdet. The Greeks pronounced this name as "Sothis". By that time, Egypt had a lunar calendar of 12 months of 29 or 30 days - from new moon to new moon. To make its months correspond to the seasons of the year, a 13th month had to be added every two or three years. Sirius helped determine the timing of this month's insertion. The first day of the lunar year was considered the first day of the new moon, which occurred after the return of this star.

Such an “observational” calendar with irregular additions of the month was poorly suited for a state where strict accounting and order existed. Therefore, for administrative and civil needs, the so-called schematic calendar was introduced. In it, the year was divided into 12 months of 30 days with the addition of an additional 5 days at the end of the year, i.e. contained 365 days. The Egyptians knew that the true year is a quarter of a day longer than the introduced one, and it is enough to add six additional days instead of five in every fourth, leap year, to harmonize it with the seasons. But this was not done. For 40 years, i.e. the life of one generation, the calendar moved forward by 10 days, not such a noticeable amount, and the scribes who managed the household could easily adapt to the slow changes in the dates of the seasons. After some time, another lunar calendar appeared in Egypt, adapted to the sliding civil calendar. In it, additional months were inserted so as to keep the beginning of the year not near the moment of the appearance of Sirius, near the beginning of the civil year. This "wandering" lunar calendar was used along with the other two.

Each of the planets, according to Ptolemy, does not move around the Earth, but around a certain point. This point, in turn, moves in a circle, in the center of which is the Earth. Ptolemy called the circle described by the planet around a moving point an epicycle, and the circle along which a point moves near the Earth was called a deferent. This false system was accepted for almost 1,500 years. It was also recognized by the Christian religion. Christianity bases its worldview on the biblical legend of the creation of the world by God in 6 days. According to this legend, the Earth is the “concentration” of the Universe, and the celestial bodies were created in order to illuminate the Earth and decorate the firmament. Christianity mercilessly persecuted any deviation from these views. The world system of Aristotle - Ptolemy, which placed the Earth at the center of the universe, perfectly corresponded to Christian doctrine. The tables compiled by Ptolemy made it possible to determine in advance the position of the planets in the sky. But over time, astronomers discovered a discrepancy between the observed positions of the planets and the pre-calculated ones. For centuries, they thought that the Ptolemaic system of the world was simply not perfect enough and, in an attempt to improve it, they introduced new and new combinations of circular movements for each planet.

Heliocentric system of the world The great Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) outlined his system of the world in the book “On Rotations” celestial spheres", published in the year of his death. In this book, he proved that the Universe is not structured at all as religion has claimed for many centuries. Long before Ptolemy, the Greek scientist Aristarchus argued that the Earth moves around the Sun. Later, in the Middle Ages, advanced scientists shared Aristarchus's point of view about the structure of the world and rejected the false teachings of Ptolemy. Shortly before Copernicus, the great Italian scientists Nicholas of Cusa and Leonardo da Vinci argued that the Earth moves, that it is not at all at the center of the Universe and does not occupy an exceptional position in it. Why, despite this, did the Ptolemaic system continue to dominate? Because it relied on the all-powerful church power, which suppressed free thought and interfered with the development of science. In addition, scientists who rejected the teachings of Ptolemy and expressed correct views on the structure of the Universe could not yet convincingly substantiate them. Only Nicolaus Copernicus managed to do this. After 30 years of hard work, much thought and difficult

mathematical calculations, he showed that the Earth is only one of the planets, and all the planets revolve around the Sun. What does the book “On the Rotation of the Celestial Spheres” contain and why did it deal such a crushing blow to the Ptolemaic system, which, with all its flaws, was maintained for 14 centuries under the auspices of the all-powerful church? In this book, Nicolaus Copernicus argued that the Earth and other planets are satellites of the Sun. He showed that it is the movement of the Earth around the Sun and its daily rotation around its axis that explains the apparent movement of the Sun, the strange entanglement in the movement of the planets and the apparent rotation of the firmament. Copernicus simply brilliantly explained that we perceive the movement of distant celestial bodies in the same way as the movement various items on Earth when we ourselves are in motion. Copernicus, like the ancient Greek scientists, suggested that the orbits in which the planets move can only be circular. 75 years later, the German astronomer Johannes Kepler, a successor to Copernicus, proved that if the Earth moved in space, then when observing the sky in different time It would seem to us that the stars are moving, changing their position in the sky. But not a single astronomer has noticed such displacements of stars for many centuries. It was in this that the supporters of Ptolemy’s teachings wanted to see evidence of the immobility of the Earth. However, Copernicus argued that the stars are located at unimaginably vast distances. Therefore, their insignificant displacements could not be noticed.

Classics of celestial mechanics The century after Newton's death (1727) became a time of rapid development of celestial mechanics - a science built on the theory of gravity. And it just so happened that the main contribution to the development of this science was made by five wonderful scientists. One of them is from Switzerland, although he worked most of his life in Russia and Germany. This is Leonardo Euler. Four others are French (Cleraud, D'Alembert, Lagrange and Laplace). In 1743, D'Alembert published his Treatise on Dynamics, which formulated general rules drawing up differential equations, describing the movement of material bodies and their systems. In 1747, he presented memoirs to the Academy of Sciences about the deviations of planets from elliptical motion around the Sun under the influence of their mutual attraction. Alexis Claude Clairaut (1713-1765) made his first scientific work in geometry. It was presented to the Paris Academy, where it was read by his father. Three years later, Clairaut published new job- “On curves of double curvature.” The youth's works attracted the attention of major mathematicians. They began to seek the election of young talent to the Paris Academy of Sciences. But according to the charter, only a person who has reached 20 years of age could become a member of the Academy.

Then the famous mathematician Pierre Louis Maupertuis (1698-1759), Alexis's patron, decided to take him to Basel to see Johann Bernoulli. For three years, Clairo listened to the lectures of the venerable scientist, improving his knowledge. Upon returning to Paris, having already reached the age of 20, he was elected to the adjunct of the Academy (junior rank of academicians). In Paris, Clairaut and Maupertuis plunged into the midst of a debate about the shape of the Earth: is it compressed at the poles or elongated? Maupertuis began preparing an expedition to Lapland to measure the meridian arc. Clairo also took part in it. Returning from Laplandia, Clairaut received the title of full member of the Academy of Sciences. His life was now secure and he was able to devote it to scientific pursuits. Joseph Louis Lagrange (1735-1813) studied and then taught at the Artillery School in Turin, becoming a professor at the age of 18. In 1759, on the recommendation of Euler, 23-year-old Lagrange was elected a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. In 1766 he already became its president. Circle scientific research Lagrange was unusually wide. They are devoted to mechanics, geometry, mathematical analysis, algebra, number theory, and theoretical astronomy. The main direction of Lagrange's research was the presentation of a wide variety of phenomena in mechanics from a unified point of view. He derived an equation that describes the behavior of any system under the influence of forces. In the field of astronomy, Lagrange did much to solve the problem of the stability of the solar system; proved some special cases of stable motion, in particular for small bodies located at the so-called triangular libration points. These bodies are asteroids -

“Trojans” were discovered already in the 20th century, a century after Lagrange’s death. When solving specific problems of celestial mechanics, the paths of these scientists repeatedly crossed; They, wittingly or unwittingly, competed with each other, sometimes achieving similar results, sometimes achieving completely different results. Modern astronomy The entire history of the study of the Universe is, in essence, a search for means to improve human vision. Until the beginning of the 17th century, the naked eye was the only optical instrument of astronomers. All the astronomical technology of the ancients came down to the creation of various goniometric instruments, as accurate and durable as possible. Already the first telescopes immediately sharply increased the resolving and penetrating ability of the human eye. The universe turned out to be completely different than it seemed until then. Gradually, receivers of invisible radiation were created and currently we perceive the universe in all ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum - from gamma rays to ultra-long radio waves. Moreover, corpuscular radiation receivers have been created that capture the smallest particles - corpuscles (mainly atomic nuclei and electrons) coming to us from celestial bodies. If we are not afraid of allegories, we can say that the Earth has become sharper, its “eyes”, that is, the totality of all receivers of cosmic radiation, are capable of

record objects from which rays of light reach us over many billions of years. Thanks to telescopes and other instruments of astronomical technology, man has penetrated into such space distances, where light - the fastest thing in this world - can only reach in billions of years! This means that the radius of the Universe studied by mankind is growing at a speed that is a huge number of times greater than the speed of light! Spectral analysis- study of radiation intensity in individual spectral lines, in individual parts of the spectrum. Spectral analysis is a method used to determine chemical composition celestial bodies, their temperature, size, structure, distance to them and speed of their movement. In 50 years, presumably, planets will be discovered (if they exist) around the 5-10 stars closest to us. Most likely they will be detected in the optical, infrared and submillimeter wavelength ranges from extra-atmospheric installations. In the future, interstellar probe ships will appear to fly to one of the nearest stars within a distance of 5-10 light years, of course, to the one near which planets will be discovered. Such a ship will move at a speed of no more than 0.1 the speed of light using a thermonuclear engine.

2000 years ago, the distance of the Earth from the Sun, according to Aristarchus of Samos, was about 361 Earth radii, i.e. about 2,300,000 km. Aristotle believed that the “sphere of stars” was located 9 times further. Thus, the geometric scale of the world 2000 years ago was “measured” at 20,000,000 km. With the help of modern telescopes, astronomers observe objects located at a distance of about 10 billion light years. Thus, during the mentioned period of time, the scale of the world has grown 5,000,000,000,000,000 times. According to Byzantine Christian theologies, the world was created 5508 BC, i.e. less than 7.5 thousand years ago. Modern astronomy has provided evidence that already about 10 billion years ago, accessible to astronomical observations The universe existed in the form of a gigantic system of galaxies. The scale in time “grew” 13 million times. But the main thing, of course, is not the digital growth of spatial and temporal scales, although they take your breath away. The main thing is that man has finally entered the broad path of understanding the actual laws of the universe.

END Thank you for your attention!

An astronomical unit is used in the study of the solar system. This is the size of the semi-major axis of the Earth's orbit: 1 AU=149 million km. Larger units of length - the light year and parsec, as well as their derivatives - are needed in stellar astronomy and cosmology. A light year is the distance a light beam travels in a vacuum in one Earth year. Parsec is historically associated with measuring distances to stars by their parallax and is 3.263 light years = a. e. Astronomy is closely connected with other sciences, primarily with physics and mathematics, the methods of which are widely used in it. But astronomy is also an indispensable testing ground on which many physical theories are tested. Space is the only place where matter exists at temperatures of hundreds of millions of degrees and almost at absolute zero, in the void of vacuum and in neutron stars. Recently, the achievements of astronomy have begun to be used in geology and biology, geography and history.

Astronomy of ancient civilizations About 4 thousand years BC. One of the oldest civilizations on Earth, the Egyptian, arose in the Nile Valley. Another thousand years later, after the unification of two kingdoms (Upper and Lower Egypt), a powerful state emerged here. By that time, which is called the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians already knew the potter's wheel, knew how to smelt copper, and invented writing. It was during this era that the pyramids were built. At the same time, the Egyptian calendars probably appeared: lunar-stellar - religious and schematic - civil. The astronomy of Egyptian civilization began precisely with the Nile. Egyptian priest-astronomers noticed that shortly before the water began to rise, two events occurred: the summer solstice and the first appearance of Sirius on the morning star after a 70-day absence from the sky. The Egyptians named Sirius, the brightest star in the sky, after the goddess Sopdet. The Greeks pronounced this name as "Sothis". By that time, Egypt had a lunar calendar of 12 months of 29 or 30 days - from new moon to new moon. To make its months correspond to the seasons of the year, a 13th month had to be added every two or three years. Sirius helped determine the timing of this month's insertion. The first day of the lunar year was considered the first day of the new moon, which occurred after the return of this star.

This “observational” calendar with the irregular addition of a month was poorly suited for a state where strict accounting and order existed. Therefore, for administrative and civil needs, the so-called schematic calendar was introduced. In it, the year was divided into 12 months of 30 days with the addition of an additional 5 days at the end of the year, i.e. contained 365 days. The Egyptians knew that the true year is a quarter of a day longer than the introduced one, and it is enough to add six additional days instead of five in every fourth, leap year, to harmonize it with the seasons. But this was not done. For 40 years, i.e. the life of one generation, the calendar moved forward by 10 days, not such a noticeable amount, and the scribes who managed the household could easily adapt to the slow changes in the dates of the seasons. After some time, another lunar calendar appeared in Egypt, adapted to the sliding civil calendar. In it, additional months were inserted so as to keep the beginning of the year not near the moment of the appearance of Sirius, near the beginning of the civil year. This "wandering" lunar calendar was used along with the other two.

Heliocentric system of the world The great Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus () outlined his system of the world in the book “On the Rotations of the Celestial Spheres,” published in the year of his death. In this book, he proved that the Universe is not structured at all as religion has claimed for many centuries. Long before Ptolemy, the Greek scientist Aristarchus argued that the Earth moves around the Sun. Later, in the Middle Ages, advanced scientists shared Aristarchus's point of view about the structure of the world and rejected the false teachings of Ptolemy. Shortly before Copernicus, the great Italian scientists Nicholas of Cusa and Leonardo da Vinci argued that the Earth moves, that it is not at all at the center of the Universe and does not occupy an exceptional position in it. Why, despite this, did the Ptolemaic system continue to dominate? Because it relied on the all-powerful church power, which suppressed free thought and interfered with the development of science. In addition, scientists who rejected the teachings of Ptolemy and expressed correct views on the structure of the Universe could not yet convincingly substantiate them. Only Nicolaus Copernicus managed to do this. After 30 years of hard work, much thought and difficult

Through mathematical calculations, he showed that the Earth is only one of the planets, and all planets revolve around the Sun. What does the book “On the Rotation of the Celestial Spheres” contain and why did it deal such a crushing blow to the Ptolemaic system, which, with all its flaws, was maintained for 14 centuries under the auspices of the all-powerful church? In this book, Nicolaus Copernicus argued that the Earth and other planets are satellites of the Sun. He showed that it is the movement of the Earth around the Sun and its daily rotation around its axis that explains the apparent movement of the Sun, the strange entanglement in the movement of the planets and the apparent rotation of the firmament. Copernicus simply brilliantly explained that we perceive the movement of distant celestial bodies in the same way as the movement of various objects on Earth when we ourselves are in motion. Copernicus, like the ancient Greek scientists, suggested that the orbits in which the planets move can only be circular. 75 years later, the German astronomer Johannes Kepler, a successor to Copernicus, proved that if the Earth moved in space, then when observing the sky at different times it would seem to us that the stars were shifting, changing their position in the sky. But not a single astronomer has noticed such displacements of stars for many centuries. It was in this that the supporters of Ptolemy’s teachings wanted to see evidence of the immobility of the Earth. However, Copernicus argued that the stars are located at unimaginably vast distances. Therefore, their insignificant displacements could not be noticed.

Classics of celestial mechanics The century after Newton's death (1727) was a time of rapid development of celestial mechanics - a science built on the theory of gravity. And it just so happened that the main contribution to the development of this science was made by five wonderful scientists. One of them is from Switzerland, although he worked most of his life in Russia and Germany. This is Leonardo Euler. Four others are French (Cleraud, D'Alembert, Lagrange and Laplace). In 1743, D'Alembert published his Treatise on Dynamics, which formulated the general rules for composing differential equations that describe the motion of material bodies and their systems. In 1747, he presented memoirs to the Academy of Sciences about the deviations of planets from elliptical motion around the Sun under the influence of their mutual attraction. Alexis Claude Clairaut () did his first scientific work on geometry when he was less than 13 years old. It was presented to the Paris Academy, where it was read by his father. Three years later, Clairaut published a new work - “On curves of double curvature.” The youth's works attracted the attention of major mathematicians. They began to seek the election of young talent to the Paris Academy of Sciences. But according to the charter, only a person who has reached 20 years of age could become a member of the Academy.

Then the famous mathematician Pierre Louis Maupertuis (), Alexis's patron, decided to take him to Basel to see Johann Bernoulli. For three years, Clairo listened to the lectures of the venerable scientist, improving his knowledge. Upon returning to Paris, having already reached the age of 20, he was elected to the adjunct of the Academy (junior rank of academicians). In Paris, Clairaut and Maupertuis plunged into the midst of a debate about the shape of the Earth: is it compressed at the poles or elongated? Maupertuis began preparing an expedition to Lapland to measure the meridian arc. Clairo also took part in it. Returning from Laplandia, Clairaut received the title of full member of the Academy of Sciences. His life was now secure and he was able to devote it to scientific pursuits. Joseph Louis Lagrange () studied and then taught at the Artillery School in Turin, becoming a professor at the age of 18. In 1759, on the recommendation of Euler, 23-year-old Lagrange was elected a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. In 1766 he already became its president. Lagrange's range of scientific research was unusually wide. They are devoted to mechanics, geometry, mathematical analysis, algebra, number theory, and theoretical astronomy. The main direction of Lagrange's research was the presentation of a wide variety of phenomena in mechanics from a unified point of view. He derived an equation that describes the behavior of any system under the influence of forces. In the field of astronomy, Lagrange did much to solve the problem of the stability of the solar system; proved some special cases of stable motion, in particular for small bodies located at the so-called triangular libration points. These bodies are asteroids -

To record objects from which rays of light reach us over many billions of years. Thanks to telescopes and other instruments of astronomical technology, in three and a half centuries, man has penetrated into such cosmic distances, where light - the fastest thing in this world - can only reach in billions of years! This means that the radius of the Universe studied by mankind is growing at a speed that is a huge number of times greater than the speed of light! Spectral analysis is the study of radiation intensity in individual spectral lines, in individual parts of the spectrum. Spectral analysis is a method by which the chemical composition of celestial bodies, their temperature, size, structure, distance to them and the speed of their movement are determined. In 50 years, presumably, planets will be discovered (if they exist) around the 5-10 stars closest to us. Most likely they will be detected in the optical, infrared and submillimeter wavelength ranges from extra-atmospheric installations. In the future, interstellar probe ships will appear to fly to one of the nearest stars within a distance of 5-10 light years, of course, to the one near which planets will be discovered. Such a ship will move at a speed of no more than 0.1 the speed of light using a thermonuclear engine.

2000 years ago, the distance of the Earth from the Sun, according to Aristarchus of Samos, was about 361 Earth radii, i.e. about km. Aristotle believed that the “sphere of stars” was located 9 times further. Thus, the geometric scale of the world 2000 years ago was “measured” in kilometers. With the help of modern telescopes, astronomers observe objects located at a distance of about 10 billion light years. Thus, during the mentioned period of time, the scale of the world has grown exponentially. According to Byzantine Christian theologies, the world was created 5508 BC, i.e. less than 7.5 thousand years ago. Modern astronomy has provided evidence that already about 10 billion years ago, the Universe accessible to astronomical observations existed in the form of a giant system of galaxies. The scale in time “grew” 13 million times. But the main thing, of course, is not the digital growth of spatial and temporal scales, although they take your breath away. The main thing is that man has finally entered the broad path of understanding the actual laws of the universe.

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Astronomy (from the Greek ἀστρο “star” and νόμος “law”) is the science of the Universe, studying the location, movement, structure, origin and development of celestial bodies and systems.

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Sumer and Babylon The Sumerian-Akkadian state of Babylon existed from the 2nd millennium BC. e. to the 6th century BC e. Main discoveries: - astronomical tables, on the basis of which the priests - - the laws of motion of the planets, the Moon and the Sun, learned to predict eclipses - definition of such concepts as constellations and the zodiac - division of a full angle into 360° - development of trigonometry

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Sumerian star maps Planisphere - a neo-Assyrian flat star map, namely, the ancients’ reproduction of the spherical part of the starry sky on a clay table in the form flat map. One such planisphere, K8538, was found in the library of King Assurbanipal in Nineveh, and dates back to 800-1000 BC. The surviving part of the tablet is a circular map with the names of stars and constellations, namely their symbolic designations.

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It was probably in Babylon that the seven-day week appeared (each day was dedicated to one of the 7 luminaries). Saturn Jupiter Mars Sun Venus Mercury Moon

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The Nile floods occur at the beginning of summer, and it is precisely at this time that the first rise of the brightest star in the sky - Sirius, called "Sothis" in Egyptian - occurs. Until this moment, Sirius is not visible. This is probably why the “sotic” calendar was used in Egypt along with the civil one. A sothic year is the period between two risings of Sirius Ancient Egypt

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Main discoveries: - division of the sky into constellations. (45 constellations, including the constellation Mes ( Big Dipper); Sirius – brightest star night sky

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Zodiac on the ceiling of the secret tomb of the ancient Egyptian architect Senenmut. On the ceiling of one of the burial chambers - the Senmut pyramid - a walking man is depicted; above it are three stars in Orion's belt

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Ancient China During the legendary Xia dynasty (late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BC) in China there were two positions of court astronomers. According to legend, in 2137 BC. e. Astronomers Ho and Hi were executed for failing to predict the eclipse

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Major discoveries: Division of the celestial circle into 365.25 degrees or 28 constellations; Determination of the length of the solar year - 365.25 days; Registration of all unusual events in the sky (eclipses, comets - “broom stars”, meteor showers, new stars); Correct explanation of the causes of solar and lunar eclipses, the discovery of the uneven movement of the Moon; The earliest identifiable report of Halley's Comet dates back to 240 BC. e.

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The years were combined into a 60-year cycle: each year was dedicated to one of the 12 animals (Zodiac) and one of the 5 elements: water, fire, metal, wood, earth. Each element corresponded to one of the planets; there was also a sixth - primary - element of “qi” (ether). Later, qi was divided into several types: yin-qi and yang-qi, and others, in agreement with the teachings of Lao Tzu (6th century BC). e.)

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Mayan civilization The civilization of the Mayan tribe (II-X centuries AD) gave astronomical knowledge a very great importance. The ancient Mayan astronomers were able to predict eclipses, and very carefully observed various, most clearly visible astronomical objects such as the Pleiades, Mercury, Venus, Mars and Jupiter

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Temple-Observatory of the Mayan Tribe The Mayan calendar is a calendar that combined not only the lunar and solar cycles, but also took into account the period and speed of revolution of the Solar system around the center of the Galaxy.

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Stonehenge Stonehenge is located in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and dates back to approximately 3000 BC. e. This is not only a lunar calendar, but also a solar one. Provides a visual model solar system in cross section.

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Ancient Greece Pythagoreans: - Formed a pyrocentric model of the Universe, in which the stars, the Sun, the Moon and six planets revolve around the Central Fire (Hestia) - They considered the Earth to be spherical and rotating, which is why the change of day and night occurs - they introduced the concept of ether, but most often this word was used to designate air. Only Plato isolated the ether as a separate element.

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Aristotle, the author of Physics, was also a student of Plato. proved that the Earth is a sphere, based on the shape of the Earth's shadow during lunar eclipses; estimated the circumference of the Earth at 400,000 stadia, or about 70,000 km - almost twice as high, but for that time the accuracy was not bad. Hipparchus specified the length of the year (365.25 - 1/300 days); built mathematical theory movements of the Sun and Moon using the Apollonius Method; introduced the concepts of orbital eccentricity, apogee and perigee; clarified the duration of the synodic and sidereal lunar months (accurate to the second), the average periods of revolution of the planets; according to Hipparchus' tables, it was possible to predict solar and lunar eclipses with an accuracy unheard of at that time - up to 1-2 hours; entered geographical coordinates- latitude and longitude; opening offset celestial coordinates- “anticipation of the equinoxes”; compiled a catalog for 850 stars, dividing them into 6 brightness classes;

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Although fundamentally incorrect, Ptolemy's system nevertheless made it possible to pre-calculate the positions of the planets in the sky with sufficient accuracy for that time and therefore satisfied, to a certain extent, practical needs for many centuries.

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Middle Ages The spread of Christianity and the development of feudalism in the Middle Ages led to a loss of interest in the natural sciences, and the development of astronomy in Europe slowed down for many centuries. The next period in the development of astronomy is associated with the activities of scientists from Islamic countries - al-Battani, al-Biruni, Abu l-Hasan ibn Yunis, Nasir ad-Din at-Tusi, Ulugbek and many others.

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The spread of Christianity and the development of feudalism in the Middle Ages led to a loss of interest in the natural sciences, and the development of astronomy in Europe slowed down for many centuries. The next period in the development of astronomy is associated with the activities of scientists from Islamic countries - al-Battani, al-Biruni, Abu l-Hasan ibn Yunis, Nasir ad-Din at-Tusi, Ulugbek and many others. - scientists of the Muslim world improved a number of astronomical instruments and invented new ones, which allowed them to significantly increase the accuracy of determining a number of astronomical parameters; - laid the foundation for the tradition of building specialized scientific institutions - astronomical observatories; - put forward a fundamental requirement: astronomical theory is part of physics, which led to the creation of the heliocentric system of the world by Copernicus, the discovery of the laws of planetary motions by Kepler, the establishment of the mechanism of action of central forces by Hooke and the discovery of the law universal gravity Newton;

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Renaissance and New Time In the 15th century, the German cardinal Nicholas of Cusa expressed the opinion that the Universe is infinite and has no center at all - neither the Earth, nor the Sun, nor anything else occupies a special position. All celestial bodies consist of the same matter as the Earth, and are quite possibly inhabited. He asserted: all luminaries, including the Earth, move in space, and every observer on it has the right to consider it motionless.

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Heliocentric system of the Copernican World 1) There is no single center for all celestial orbits or spheres. 2) The center of the Earth is not the center of the world, but only the center of gravity and the lunar orbit. 3) All spheres move around the Sun as around their center, as a result of which the Sun is the center of the whole world. 4) The ratio of the distance from the Earth to the Sun to the height of the firmament (that is, to the distance to the sphere of fixed stars) is less than the ratio of the radius of the Earth to the distance from it to the Sun, and the distance from the Earth to the Sun is negligible compared to the height of the firmament. 5) Any movement noticed in the firmament is not associated with any movement of the firmament itself, but with the movement of the Earth. The earth, together with the elements surrounding it (air and water), makes a complete revolution around its constant poles during the day, while the firmament and the sky located on it remain motionless. 6) What seems to us to be the movement of the Sun is actually connected with the movements of the Earth and our sphere, with which we revolve around the Sun, like any other planet. Thus, the Earth has more than one movement. 7) The apparent forward and backward movements of the planets are not caused by their movements, but by the movement of the Earth. Consequently, the motion of the Earth itself alone is sufficient to explain many apparent irregularities in the sky.