OGE
Socio-economic development under the first Romanovs is brief. The evolution of the political system of Russia under the first Romanovs: from class-representative to absolute monarchy. What we learned

Socio-economic development under the first Romanovs is brief. The evolution of the political system of Russia under the first Romanovs: from class-representative to absolute monarchy. What we learned

6.1. Economic and social development Russia under the first Romanovs

The Troubles led Russia to complete economic collapse. Political stability was not immediately established; the system of government in the center and locally was destroyed. The main tasks of Mikhail Romanov were to achieve reconciliation in the country, overcome economic devastation and streamline the management system. The first six years of his reign, Mikhail ruled, relying on the Boyar Duma and Zemsky Councils. In 1619, the Tsar's father Fyodor Nikitich (in monasticism Filaret) Romanov returned from Polish captivity. Having accepted the patriarchal rank, Filaret actually began to rule the country until his death in 1633. In 1645, Mikhail Romanov also died. His son Alexei Mikhailovich (1645–1676) became the Russian Tsar.

By the middle of the century, the economic devastation brought by the Time of Troubles had been overcome. Economic development of Russia in the 17th century. characterized by a number of new phenomena in economic life. The craft gradually developed into small-scale production. More and more products were produced not to order, but for the market, and economic specialization of individual regions took place. In Tula and Kashira, for example, they produced hardware. The Volga region specialized in leather processing, Novgorod and Pskov were centers of flax production. The best jewelry was produced in Novgorod, Tikhvin and Moscow. Centers of artistic production began to emerge (Khokhloma, Palekh, etc.).

The development of commodity production led to the emergence of manufactories. They were divided into state-owned, i.e., owned by the state, and privately owned.

The growth of productive forces contributed to the development of trade and the emergence of an all-Russian market. Two large all-Russian fairs arose - Makaryevskaya on the Volga and Irbitskaya in the Urals.

The Zemsky Sobor in 1649 adopted the Council Code, a code of domestic feudal law that regulated relations in the main spheres of social life. The Council Code prescribed cruel punishments not only for rebellion against the Tsar or insulting the head of state, but even for fights and riots in the Tsar’s court. Thus, the process of formation of an absolute monarchy was legislatively consolidated.

The Council Code formalized the social structure of society, since it regulated the rights and responsibilities of all classes.

Dramatic changes took place in the life of the peasantry. The conciliar code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich finally formalized serfdom - an indefinite search for fugitive peasants was established.

According to the Council Code, city residents were assigned to their place of residence and “tax,” that is, to bear state duties. A significant part of the Code is devoted to the procedure of legal proceedings and criminal law. Laws of the 17th century look too harsh. For many crimes, the Council Code provided for the death penalty. The Code also regulated the procedure for carrying military service, travel to other states, customs policy, etc.

Political development of Russia in the 17th century. characterized by evolution political system: from class-representative monarchy to absolutism. Zemsky Sobors occupied a special place in the system of class-representative monarchy. The Zemsky Sobor included the highest clergy, the Boyar Duma and the elected part: Moscow nobles, the administration of the orders, the district nobility, the top of the “tyaglovy” settlements of the Moscow suburb, as well as the Cossacks and Streltsy (“service people according to the device”).

In the first years of the reign of Mikhail Romanov, the Zemsky Sobors worked almost continuously and helped him in governing the state. Under Filaret Romanov, the activities of the Councils become less active. The last Zemsky Sobor, which worked in 1653, resolved the issue of reunification of Ukraine with Russia. Subsequently, zemstvo activity fades away. In the 1660–1680s. Numerous class commissions were assembled. All of them were predominantly boyars. The end of the work of the Zemsky Sobors actually meant the completion of the transition from an estate-representative monarchy to absolutism. In the organ system state power and control was maintained significant role Boyar Duma. However, in the second half of the 17th century. its value falls.

High development in the 17th century reaches the command system of management. The orders dealt with individual sectors in the field government controlled within the country or were in charge of individual territories. The most important among them were the order of Secret Affairs, led personally by Alexei Mikhailovich and engaged in supervision of the activities of the highest government agencies and officials. The local order formalized land plots and conducted judicial investigations in land matters. The ambassadorial order carried out the foreign policy of the state. The order of the Great Treasury controlled finances.

The main administrative-territorial unit of the state was the county. The local government system was built in the 17th century. not on the basis of elected bodies, but on the authority of governors appointed from the center. Zemstvo and provincial elders were subordinate to them. Administrative, judicial and military power, supervision over the collection of taxes and duties were concentrated in the hands of the governor.

Social structure of Russian Society XVII V. was deeply classed. The term “estate” means a social group that has rights and obligations enshrined in custom or law and inherited. The privileged class were secular and spiritual feudal lords (clergy). Secular feudal lords were divided into ranks. In the 17th century this concept reflected not so much official position how much belonging to a certain group of the feudal class. Its top were the Duma ranks: boyars, okolnichy, clerks and Duma nobles. The next in position in society were the Moscow ranks - officials, solicitors, Moscow nobles. They were followed by the lower categories of the privileged class - city officials. These included provincial nobles, who were called “children of the boyars.”

The majority of the dependent population were peasants. Personally, free members of the community were called black-growing peasants. The rest of the peasants were either privately owned, i.e., belonging to landowners, or palace, or appanage, belonging to royal family. Serfs were in the position of slaves. Residents of cities - artisans and merchants - were assigned to their duties. The richest merchants were called “guests”. The dependent classes also included “service people according to the instrument”: archers, gunners and Cossacks.

By the middle of the century, the economic devastation brought by the Time of Troubles had been overcome. Economic development of Russia in the 17th century. characterized by a number of new phenomena in economic life. The craft gradually developed into small-scale production. More and more products were produced not to order, but for the market, and economic specialization of individual regions took place. In Tula and Kashira, for example, metal products were produced. The Volga region specialized in leather processing, Novgorod and Pskov were centers of flax production. The best jewelry was produced in Novgorod, Tikhvin and Moscow. Centers of artistic production began to emerge (Khokhloma, Palekh, etc.).

The development of commodity production led to the emergence of manufactories. They were divided into state-owned, i.e., owned by the state, and privately owned.

The Council Code formalized the social structure of society, since it regulated the rights and responsibilities of all classes.

Dramatic changes took place in the life of the peasantry. The conciliar code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich finally formalized serfdom - an indefinite search for fugitive peasants was established.

According to the Council Code, city residents were assigned to their place of residence and “tax,” that is, to bear state duties. A significant part of the Code is devoted to the procedure of legal proceedings and criminal law. Laws of the 17th century look too harsh. For many crimes, the Council Code provided for the death penalty. The Code also regulated the procedure for military service, travel to other states, customs policy, etc.

Political development of Russia in the 17th century. characterized by the evolution of the state system: from estate-representative monarchy to absolutism. Zemsky Sobors occupied a special place in the system of class-representative monarchy. The Zemsky Sobor included the highest clergy, the Boyar Duma and the elected part: Moscow nobles, the administration of the orders, the district nobility, the top of the “tyaglovy” settlements of the Moscow suburb, as well as the Cossacks and Streltsy (“service people according to the device”).

In the first years of the reign of Mikhail Romanov, the Zemsky Sobors worked almost continuously and helped him in governing the state. Under Filaret Romanov, the activities of the Councils become less active. The last Zemsky Sobor, which worked in 1653, resolved the issue of reunification of Ukraine with Russia. Subsequently, zemstvo activity fades away. In the 1660–1680s. Numerous class commissions were assembled. All of them were predominantly boyars. The end of the work of the Zemsky Sobors actually meant the completion of the transition from an estate-representative monarchy to absolutism. The Boyar Duma retained a significant role in the system of state power and administration bodies. However, in the second half of the 17th century. its value falls.

High development in the 17th century. reaches the command system of management. The orders dealt with individual branches of public administration within the country or were in charge of individual territories. The most important among them were the order of Secret Affairs, led personally by Alexei Mikhailovich and engaged in supervision of the activities of higher government institutions and officials. The local order formalized land plots and conducted judicial investigations in land matters. The ambassadorial order carried out the foreign policy of the state. The order of the Great Treasury controlled finances.

Social structure of Russian society in the 17th century. was deeply classed. The term “estate” means a social group that has rights and obligations enshrined in custom or law and inherited. The privileged class were secular and spiritual feudal lords (clergy). Secular feudal lords were divided into ranks. In the 17th century this concept reflected not so much official position as belonging to a certain group of the feudal class. Its top were the Duma ranks: boyars, okolnichy, clerks and Duma nobles. The next in position in society were the Moscow ranks - officials, solicitors, Moscow nobles. They were followed by the lower categories of the privileged class - city officials. These included provincial nobles, who were called “children of the boyars.”

The majority of the dependent population were peasants. Personally, free members of the community were called black-growing peasants. The rest of the peasants were either privately owned, that is, belonging to the landowners, or palace, or appanage, belonging to the royal family. Serfs were in the position of slaves. Residents of cities - artisans and merchants - were assigned to their duties. The richest merchants were called “guests”. The dependent classes also included “service people according to the instrument”: archers, gunners and Cossacks.

Church schism

Notable phenomena of political and spiritual life Russia XVII V. began the church reform and the subsequent church schism. The main reasons for its occurrence were contradictions in the church environment and the psychological rejection of religious innovations by some believers.

The controversy between church leaders began in the 1640s. At this time, a “circle of zealots of ancient piety” was gathering in Moscow. Many church leaders who participated in the work of the circle believed that it was necessary to make changes in the church service and make adjustments to the liturgical books. Disagreement arose over the choice of samples on which these changes should be made. Some believed that Russian handwritten books should serve as models, others suggested using Greek originals. Supporter last point Patriarch Nikon was in sight. In accordance with the ideological theory of “Moscow - the Third Rome,” Nikon made changes to church books and the order of worship, focusing on Greek models. Nikon replaced the custom of crossing with two fingers with three fingers, the name “Jesus” was written with two letters “i”, etc. All these innovations were supported by secular authorities and approved by the church council of 1656.

Nikon's innovations affected mainly ritual prescriptions and did not affect the foundations of Orthodox dogma and doctrine. However, a significant part of the believers and clergy did not accept them. Any rejection of ancient customs was perceived by many people of that time as a departure from the faith. This is how the Old Believers arose. Archpriest Avvakum Petrov became its spiritual leader. Avvakum spent eleven long years in severe Siberian exile. Then the authorities returned him to Moscow and tried to persuade him to accept church reforms. Habakkuk remained a firm zealot of the “old faith.” For this he was again exiled, condemned by a church council, imprisoned in an earthen prison and then burned alive. The brutal persecution of the Old Believers did not stop. Thousands of opponents of reforms were forced to flee to the outskirts of the country. The extreme form of protest was self-immolation - “burning”. The Solovetsky Monastery in the North of Russia became a major center of resistance to Nikon’s innovations. Monks and archers defended the monastery from the tsarist troops for 8 years (1668–1676).

Nikon himself, whom Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich once called his “king’s friend,” sought to place his spiritual power above the royal one. The Patriarch accepted the title of Great Sovereign. He compared the power of the patriarch with the Sun, and the power of the king with the Moon, which only reflects sunlight. All this inevitably led to conflict with the king. Alexey Mikhailovich pointedly stopped attending services performed by Nikon and began to avoid meeting him. In 1658, Nikon announced that he was leaving the patriarchate and leaving Moscow. The ambitious patriarch hoped that the king would enter into dialogue with him and offer to continue his service. Nikon miscalculated. In 1666–1667 a church council was assembled, in which representatives of the Greek Orthodox churches. The council condemned Nikon and deprived him of his rank. The disgraced church leader was exiled to the Ferapontov Monastery near Vologda. However, his reforms were retained.

Popular uprisings

XVII century marked by numerous social cataclysms and popular uprisings. No wonder contemporaries nicknamed it the “rebellious age.” The main reasons for the uprisings were the enslavement of peasants and the increase in their duties; increased tax pressure; an attempt to limit Cossack freedom; church schism and persecution of Old Believers.

In June 1648, the Salt Riot broke out in Moscow. At this time, the young Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich was greatly influenced by his educator and relative, boyar B.I. Morozov. Morozov placed his people in the most important government positions. Morozov's proteges did their best to oppress and rob the Moscow population. In 1646 the tax on salt was increased. Prices for this essential product have risen sharply, causing outrage. In February 1647 the tax had to be abolished. However, in an effort to increase treasury revenue, the government announced the collection of arrears for two years. This was followed by an explosion of social outrage. On June 1, 1648, residents of Moscow tried to submit a petition to the Tsar. The boyars, who were in the ranks of the royal retinue, snatched the letter given to the king and tore it to pieces. By order of Morozov, the archers arrested 16 people from among the petitioners. The repressions only worsened the situation. Over the next few days, rebel Muscovites destroyed the houses of hated officials. Some government administration officials were killed. The danger for the tsarist government assumed threatening proportions. The uprising was suppressed only through concessions to the Moscow and provincial nobility, the elite of the merchant class, who demanded the convening of the Zemsky Sobor.

The adoption of new legislation (the Council Code) by the Zemsky Sobor in 1649, directed against the working population, further aggravated the situation. In 1650, urban uprisings broke out in Pskov and Novgorod. Their cause was speculation in grain, which occurred under direct orders from the government. It was interested in the rise in prices for bread, since it was with bread that it paid Sweden for the inhabitants of the territories that were transferred to the Swedish state under the Stolbov Treaty who moved to Russia. The initiators of the uprising were repressed.

In 1662 there was a new uprising in Moscow. It was called the Copper Riot. The enormous costs of the war with Poland, which had been protracted since 1654, greatly undermined the financial position of the state. In search of the necessary funds to continue the war, the government began to issue copper coins, equating its price to silver. The government began minting new money in too large quantities, which led to its depreciation. The purchasing power of the population also decreased, since most of the service people received their salaries in copper. At the same time, the government itself levied taxes on the population only in silver. The amount of counterfeit copper money grew. All this led to popular discontent and uprising. Alexey Mikhailovich went to negotiations with the rebels, promising to sort everything out and punish the perpetrators. The king treacherously deceived the people. The rifle regiments he called attacked the rebels. The defeat of the uprising was followed by arrests and repressions. However, the suppressed popular uprising did not remain without consequences: copper money was withdrawn from circulation.

The culmination of the “rebellious century” was the Cossack-peasant uprising led by Stepan Razin (1667–1671). In 1667, the Don Cossack Stepan Timofeevich Razin led the Cossacks’ campaign from the Don to the Volga and the Caspian Sea “for zipuns,” i.e., booty (1667–1669). The Cossacks plundered the trade caravans of Russian and Persian merchants, attacked the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea, plundering Persian cities and freeing Russian prisoners. The Cossacks defeated the fleet of the Persian Shah and returned to the Don with rich booty. The successful and fearless ataman became the recognized leader of the Cossacks.

In 1670, a new stage of Stepan Razin’s movement began, which took on an anti-serfdom character. His goals were: the capture of Moscow, the destruction of boyars and nobles, the elimination of serfdom and the establishment of a free Cossack way of life throughout the country. In the spring of 1670, Razin's army of five thousand began military operations on the Volga. It captured Tsaritsyn, Kamyshin, and Astrakhan. Then Razin's army moved up the Volga. The uprising spread to the entire Volga region. Not only Russian peasants, but also representatives of other nations joined the ranks of the Razins: Chuvash, Mari, Mordovians, Tatars. Without a fight, Razin took Saratov and Samara. His army besieged Simbirsk. Near Simbirsk and turned around decisive battles. The royal regiments under the command of Prince D.A. Baryatinsky defeated Razin and lifted the siege from the city. After this, Razin sailed with his Cossacks to the Don. There, wealthy Cossacks captured him and handed him over to the tsarist authorities. The arrested Razin was brought to Moscow, where he was interrogated and tortured. In June 1671, Stepan Razin was executed.

Foreign policy

In foreign policy Russia of the 17th century There are four main directions: southwest, northwest, south and east.

Russia's actions in the southwestern direction in the first half of the 17th century were determined by an attempt to return Russian lands (primarily Smolensk) captured by Poland during the Time of Troubles. In 1632–1634 Russia fought an unsuccessful war with Poland for Smolensk. In June 1634, the Polyanovsky Peace Treaty was signed, according to which Poland retained the Smolensk lands, and the Poles renounced their claims to the Moscow throne and recognized Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov as the legitimate tsar.

In the middle of the 17th century. Russian-Polish relations determined by events in Ukraine. The Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples living on the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth experienced severe oppression in social, national and religious relations. The war of liberation against Polish rule began in 1648. The Cossacks, led by Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky, launched an uprising in which Ukrainian and Belarusian peasants took part.

B. Khmelnitsky, realizing that the Cossacks could not cope with Poland on their own, turned to Russia with a request to accept Ukraine into its composition. October 1, 1653 The Zemsky Sobor decided to incorporate Ukraine into Russia and declare war on Poland. January 8, 1654 In the city of Pereyaslavl, a council (rada) met, at which elected representatives from all classes of the Ukrainian population unanimously spoke out in favor of Ukraine joining Russia. The annexation of Ukraine to Russia entailed a grueling and protracted war with Poland (1654–1667).

According to the Truce of Andrusovo in January 1667 between Russia and Poland, Russia received Smolensk and the lands lost in Time of Troubles, as well as Left Bank Ukraine with Kyiv. After the death of B. Khmelnitsky (1657), the Ukrainian hetmans tried to achieve independence from Russia, focusing either on Poland or Turkey ( Ottoman Empire). However, in 1686, the “Eternal Peace” was concluded between Russia and Poland, which meant a transition from confrontation to peaceful and cooperative relations. “Eternal Peace” secured Left Bank Ukraine and Kyiv to Russia. Right-bank Ukraine remained under Polish rule.

The main event of Russian foreign policy in the north-west was Russian-Swedish war 1656–1661 Russia sought to gain access to Baltic Sea and stop Swedish expansion in Poland, Lithuania and Ukraine. In 1656, Russian troops successfully attacked the Swedes and won a number of significant victories. The next two years of the war were unsuccessful: the Russian army failed to take Riga, it was defeated in Karelia and Livonia. In 1658, a truce was concluded for 3 years. In 1661, the Treaty of Kardis was signed, according to which Russia renounced all lands conquered in the Baltic states.

The southern direction of foreign policy was determined by the struggle with Turkey and its vassal, the Crimean Khanate, which repeatedly raided the southern borders of the Russian state. Because of their threat, the territory adjacent to the Crimean Khanate was sparsely populated and was called the “wild field.” The foreign policy objectives of the Russian state included the protection of its southern borders and the economic development of the fertile lands of the “wild field”.

In 1637, without the knowledge of the Russian government, the Don Cossacks captured a stronghold of Turkish possessions Azov fortress. In 1641 Turkish Sultan sent a huge army of 250,000 people to Azov. Five thousand Cossacks rejected the Turks' offer to surrender the fortress and heroically defended it. The Turks were forced to lift the siege. However, the Zemsky Sobor in January 1642, fearing war with Turkey, refused to accept Azov into Russian citizenship. And after five years of “sitting” (defense), Azov was returned to her.

Russo-Turkish War took place much later than the Azov siege “sitting” in 1677–1681. In 1676, Russian troops captured the Chigirin fortress. In the summer of 1677, a small Russian-Ukrainian garrison staunchly defended the fortress from a 100,000-strong Turkish army. In August of the same year, the Russian-Ukrainian army defeated the Turks in battles on the Dnieper. In the summer of 1678, the Turks still managed to capture Chigirin. Since 1679 fighting stopped and peace negotiations began. In January 1681, the Bakhchisarai Peace Treaty was concluded. According to its terms, Turkey and Crimea recognized the entry of Left-Bank Ukraine, together with Kiev, into Russia, and Right-Bank Ukraine remained with the Ottoman Empire.

The eastern direction of foreign policy is, first of all, advancement into Siberian lands. The development of Siberia for a long time was not accompanied by conflicts with any foreign states. The conquest of Siberia was accompanied by the imposition of yasak on the indigenous peoples, that is, a tribute levied mainly on furs. In the 17th century Russian fortified settlements (fortresses) appeared in Siberia: Yenisei (1618), Krasnoyarsk (1628), Ilim (1630), Yakut (1632), Irkutsk (1652), etc.

During this period, the endless expanses of Siberia were traversed and explored by Russian explorers and sailors.

The arrival of the Russians Far East led to a conflict with China, which was settled by signing the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689.

Following the pioneers, representatives of the tsarist administration came to Siberia. In 1637 its management huge territories was transferred to the specially created Siberian order. Siberia was divided into 19 districts, which were ruled by governors appointed from Moscow.

Russia at the end of the 17th century

After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich in 1676, his son Fedor (1676–1682) became tsar. The short reign of Fyodor Alekseevich was marked by the further strengthening of the state and the centralization of power. In 1680, a military district reform was carried out. In 1682, localism was abolished, which objectively contributed to strengthening the position of the nobility. There were also projects to reform the administrative and church governance of the country, but they were not implemented due to the early death of the king in 1682.

Young Fyodor Alekseevich died childless, so after his death the question of succession to the throne became acute. At this time, there was a struggle for power between the boyar families of the Miloslavskys and Naryshkins, whose representatives were the first and second wives of Alexei Mikhailovich, respectively. By right of seniority, Ivan, the son of Maria Miloslavskaya, was to become the heir to the Russian throne. However, Ivan Alekseevich was a weak, sickly man and incapable of governing the state. Alexei Mikhailovich's son from his second marriage, Peter, was proclaimed tsar. This did not suit the Miloslavskys and they provoked a Streltsy uprising against the Naryshkins. As a result, a compromise decision was made: the Russian throne was divided between two Tsars, Ivan and Peter. Sister Sophia (1682–1689) became their regent.

Agriculture

The events of the Time of Troubles led to the ruin and devastation of a large part of Russia, especially its central regions. Since the 20s. XVII century the process of economic restoration began. restored by the 40s. XVII century

The main sector of the Russian economy remained Agriculture, where the three-field farming system continued to dominate. The main agricultural crops were rye and oats. Wheat, barley, millet, buckwheat, peas, and industrial crops such as flax and hemp were also grown. Gardening and horticulture developed. The main tools of labor remained the plow, harrow, sickle, and scythe; the plow was slowly introduced.

Craft and industry

In the 17th century The share of handicraft production in the country's economy increased. The division of labor deepened. The largest centers of handicraft production were Moscow, Ustyug Veliky, Yaroslavl, Novgorod, Tula and others. Handicraft centers in the 17th century. There were also some villages. In the development of handicraft production in the 17th century. there is a clear tendency to transform it into small-scale production. The development of small-scale crafts and the growth of commodity specialization prepared the ground for the emergence manufactory

Cathedral Code of 1649

On September 1, 1648, the Zemsky Sobor began its work, and in January 1649 it adopted the Council Code.

The Council Code was serf-based in its content and reflected the victory of the nobility.

The Council Code completed the long process of the formation of serfdom, which went through a number of stages. The adoption of the Council Code, directed against the working people of the city and countryside, intensified the class struggle. In 1650, uprisings of citizens broke out in Pskov and Novgorod. The state needed funds to maintain the state apparatus and troops; in 1654, the government began minting copper coins instead of silver coins at the same price. This led to rising prices. Price gouging led to famine. The desperate townspeople of Moscow rebelled in 1662 (Copper Riot). The uprising was brutally suppressed, but copper money was no longer minted.

Peasant war led by Stepan Razin

The uprising of 1662 became one of the harbingers of the impending peasant war, led by Ataman S.T. Razin. The norms of the Council Code of 1649 sharply aggravated class antagonism in the village. The development of commodity-money relations led to increased feudal exploitation, which was expressed in the growth in the black soil regions of corvée and monetary dues in places where the land was infertile. The deterioration of the situation of peasants in the fertile lands The Volga region, where land ownership of the Morozov, Mstislavsky, and Cherkasy boyars grew rapidly. The specificity of the Volga region was that there were lands nearby where the population had not yet experienced the full weight of feudal oppression. This is what attracted the Trans-Volga steppes and the Don to runaway slaves, peasants, and townspeople. The non-Russian population - Mordovians, Chuvash, Tatars, Bashkirs were under double oppression - feudal and national. All this created the preconditions for the development of a new peasant war in this area.

The driving forces of the peasant war were peasants, Cossacks, serfs, townspeople, archers, and non-Russian peoples of the Volga region. Razin’s “charming (from the word “to seduce”) letters” contained a call for a campaign against the boyars, nobles, and merchants. They were characterized by faith in a good king. Objectively, the demands of the rebel peasants boiled down to the creation of conditions in which peasant farming could develop as the main unit of agricultural production.

The harbinger of the peasant war was the campaign of Vasily Usa from the Don to Tula (May 1666). During its advance, the Cossack detachment was replenished with peasants who destroyed estates. The uprising covered the territories of Tula, Dedilovsky and other districts. The government urgently sent the noble militia against the rebels. The rebels retreated to the Don.

In 1667-1668. Cossack bastards, alien slaves and peasants made a campaign in Persia. It was called the “zipun trek.” The Don Golytba had made such attacks before, but this campaign amazes with its scope, thoroughness of preparation, duration and enormous success.

During the "campaign for zipuns" the differences devastated not only the western and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea, they caused defeats Persian army and the fleet, but also opposed government troops. They defeated a detachment of Astrakhan archers, destroyed a caravan of ships belonging to the Tsar, the Patriarch, and the merchant Shorin. Thus, already in this campaign, features of social antagonism appeared, which led to the formation of the core of the future rebel army.

In the winter of 1669-1670. upon returning from the Caspian Sea to the Don, Razin is preparing for a second campaign, this time against the boyars, nobles, merchants, on a campaign for all the “rabble,” “for all the enslaved and disgraced.”

The campaign began in the spring of 1670. Vasily Us joined Razin with his detachment. Razin's army consisted of golutvenny Cossacks, runaway slaves and peasants, archers. The main goal of the campaign was to capture Moscow. The main route is the Volga. To carry out the campaign against Moscow, it was necessary to provide the rear - to take the government fortresses of Tsaritsyn and Astrakhan. During April-July the differences took hold of these cities. The courtyards of the boyars, nobles, and clerks were destroyed, and the archives of the voivod's court were burned. Cossack administration was introduced in cities.

Leaving a detachment led by Usa and Sheludyak in Astrakhan, Razin’s rebel detachments took Saransk and Penza. A trip to Nizhny Novgorod. The actions of peasant detachments turned the Volga region and surrounding areas into a hotbed of the anti-feudal movement. The movement spread to the Russian North (there were differences in Solovki), to Ukraine, where a detachment of Frol Razin was sent.

Only by exerting all its forces, by sending numerous regiments of government troops, did tsarism by the spring of 1671. was able to drown the peasant movement in the Volga region in blood. In April of the same year, Razin was defeated and was handed over to the government by the homely Cossacks. On June 6, 1671, Razin was executed in Moscow. But Razin's execution did not mean the end of the movement. Only in November 1671 government troops captured Astrakhan. In 1673-1675. Rebel detachments were still active on the Don, near Kozlov and Tambov.

The defeat of the peasant war led by Stepan Razin was predetermined by a number of reasons. The main one was that peasant war was of a tsarist character. The peasants believed in the “good king”, because due to their position they could not see the true reason for their

oppression and develop an ideology that would unite all oppressed sections of the population and raise their to fight the existing feudal system. Other reasons for the defeat were spontaneity and locality, weak weapons and poor organization of the rebels.

c) Domestic policy

Transition to absolutism

In the second half of the 17th century. in Russia there is a developing trend of transition from an estate-representative monarchy to an absolute monarchy. The power of the king is strengthening in the country. This was expressed both in the appearance of the word “autocrat” in the royal title and in the change social composition Boyar Duma in the direction of strengthening the representation of the nobility there. In 1678-1679 in the Duma there were 42 boyars, 27 okolnichys, 19 Duma nobles and 9 Duma clerks. It is characteristic that the number of Duma clerks began to include people from the “trading people”, i.e. merchants.

In 1682, localism was abolished (the principle of holding a public office depending on the nobility of the family and the official position of the ancestors). To strengthen the power of the parish, centralize and overcome fragmentation in management, the Order of the Great Sovereign for Secret Affairs was formed in 1654, to whose jurisdiction a number of important state affairs were transferred from the Boyar Duma. The tendency towards establishing the autocratic power of the tsar was also manifested in the victory of Alexei Mikhailovich over Patriarch Nikon, who sought to actively intervene in the management of state affairs.

The tendency towards strengthening autocratic power was also manifested in a number of other events. Beginning in 1653, the convening of Zemsky Sobors practically ceased. The orders were merged and reorganized, subordinating them to one person. For example, the king’s father-in-law I.D. Miloslavsky supervised the work of five orders, and the Ambassadorial Order was subordinate to 9 orders that were in charge of the annexed territories. The government tried to reorganize local government as well. Russia was divided into 250 districts, headed by governors. In the second half of the 17th century. some counties began to be united under the authority of one governor into so-called categories: Ryazan, Ukrainian, Novgorod, etc. Since 1613, 33 Russian cities received voivodeship administration. Administrative, judicial and military power, supervision over the collection of taxes and duties were concentrated in the hands of the governors appointed by the government.

In the 17th century The question of reforming the Russian armed forces became acute. The combat effectiveness of the Streltsy army was falling. The Sagittarius did not receive a salary from the state for many years. The source of life for them and their families was trade and craft activities, which were allowed to them back in the 16th century. Military service distracted the archers from their activities. In addition, the archers paid state taxes on their trades and trades, which brought them closer in interests to the townspeople population of the cities. Regimental commanders often used archers to work on their farms. All this made military service a burdensome task for the archers.

The noble militia served on the same basis as in the 16th century. But if in the 16th and first half of the 17th centuries. military service was still an incentive for the nobility, then to end of XVII V. it has become quite burdensome for most. They avoided service in every possible way. In addition, the nobles were poorly trained in the conduct of military operations. One of his contemporaries described military training nobles as follows: “they don’t have training for battle and don’t know any formation.”

Already in the first half of the century, in connection with this, the formation of regiments of a new system began - Reitar and Dragoon regiments. They were formed on the basis of the forced recruitment of “dacha people”, when from 100 households one person was taken for lifelong service in these regiments. By the end of the XVI century. regiments of the new system began to play a significant role in the Russian armed forces.

Russian foreign policy in the 16th century–XVII centuries

Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov became the Russian Tsar at a difficult time (Fig. 6.1). The Troubles led Russia to complete economic ruin. Political stability was not immediately established; the system of government in the center and locally was destroyed. The main tasks of the young king were to achieve reconciliation in the country, overcome economic ruin and streamline the management system.

Rice. 6.1

The first six years of his reign, Mikhail ruled, relying on the Boyar Duma and Zemsky Councils. The latter actually did not stop their work from 1613 to 1619. In 1619, the Tsar’s father Fyodor Nikitich (in monasticism Filaret) Romanov returned from Polish captivity. Having accepted the patriarchal rank, Filaret became the de facto ruler of the country until his death in 1633. In 1645, Mikhail Romanov also died. His son Alexei Mikhailovich became the Russian Tsar (Fig. 6.2).

Rice. 6.2

By the middle of the century, the economic devastation brought by the Time of Troubles had been overcome. Economic development of Russia in the 17th century. characterized by a number of new phenomena in economic life (Fig. 6.3). The craft gradually developed into small-scale production. More and more products were produced not to order, but for the market. The economic specialization of individual regions is developing. In Tula and Kashira, for example, metal products were produced. The Volga region specialized in leather processing. Novgorod and Pskov were centers of flax production. The best jewelry was produced in Novgorod, Tikhvin and Moscow. In the same era, centers of artistic production emerged (Khokhloma, Palekh, etc.).

The development of commodity production made possible the emergence of manufactories, which were divided into state-owned ones, i.e. state-owned (for example, the Armory Chamber), and privately owned. Latest

arose mainly in metallurgy. Such enterprises were located in Tula, Kashira and the Urals.

Rice. 6.3

The growth of productive forces contributed to the development of trade and the beginning of the formation of an all-Russian market. Two large all-Russian fairs emerged: Makaryevskaya on the Volga and Irbigskaya in the Urals.

In the 17th century final legal registration took place in Russia serfdom. By this term, historians understand the most severe form of peasant dependence on the landowner, whose power extended to the person, labor and property of the peasants belonging to him. The forced attachment of peasants to the land was practiced in a number of European countries in the Middle Ages. However, in Western Europe Serfdom was relatively short-lived and did not exist everywhere. In Russia, it was finally established at the turn of the New Age, existed in the most severe form and was abolished only in 1861. How can we explain such a phenomenon in Russian history? IN historical literature One of the reasons for the enslavement of peasants is the low productivity of peasant farms. Historians believe that other reasons for the development of serfdom were harsh natural and climatic conditions and the economic dependence of peasants on feudal lords. The position of the Russian peasantry was influenced by the peculiarities of the political development of Russian statehood. The basis of the armed forces of Russia in the 17th century. constituted the service class of landowners - landowners. Constantly arising expenses for maintaining the country's defense capability required strengthening this class and providing it with free labor (Fig. 6.4).

Rice. 6.4

In historical literature, two main concepts of enslavement of the Russian peasantry have emerged. The concept of “mandatory” enslavement assumes that serfdom was introduced at the initiative of state power, based on the needs of the country’s defense capability and to ensure the service class. This point of view was shared by historians N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Solovyov, N.I. Kostomarov, S.B. Veselovsky and B.D. Grekov, and modern historian R.G. Skrynnikov. In the works of V. O. Klyuchevsky, M. II. Pogodin and M.L. Dyakonov defended the “undecided” concept, according to which serfdom was a consequence of the real living conditions of the country, formalized by the state only legally (Fig. 6.5).

Rice. 6.5

It is not difficult to trace the stages of legal registration of serfdom. In 1581, Ivan the Terrible introduced the “Reserved Summers”, until the abolition of which peasants were forbidden to leave their owners, i.e. peasants were deprived of the ancient right of transition to St. George's Day. In continuation of the policy of enslaving the peasants, Godunov’s government adopted a decree in 1597 on a five-year search for fugitive peasants. Decrees of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich in 1637 and 1641. state investigation was increased accordingly to nine and then to 15 years. The date of final registration of serfdom is considered to be 1649. The Council Code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich established an indefinite search for fugitive peasants.

Adopted in 1649, the Council Code is a code of domestic feudal law that regulated relations in the main spheres of social life (Fig. 6.6).

In July 1648, the Zemsky Sobor considered the petition of servicemen and merchants for the adoption of a new code of laws. To develop it, a special commission was created headed by boyar Odoevsky. Already in the fall of the same year, the draft Code was presented to the tsar. At the beginning of 1649, the Code was approved by the Zemsky Sobor. It was soon published in 1,200 copies.

The Code is divided into chapters, and chapters into articles. In total, the Council Code contains 25 chapters and 967 articles. The code of laws begins with the chapter “On blasphemers and church rebels,” which prescribes that any blasphemy, heresy, or rebellion against church authorities should be punished by burning at the stake. The next two chapters regulate the status of the king. The very title of one of them is indicative: “On the sovereign’s honor and how to protect his sovereign’s health.” The Council Code prescribes severe punishment not only for rebellion against the Tsar or insulting the head of state, but even for fights and riots in the Tsar’s court. This is how the legislative consolidation of the process of becoming an absolute monarchy took place.

Rice. 6.6

The cathedral code formalized social structure society, regulating the rights and responsibilities of all classes. The most important chapter was Chapter 11, “The Court of Peasants.” It was she who introduced an indefinite search for fugitive peasants, finally formalizing serfdom. The Cathedral Code attached city residents to their place of residence and “tax,” i.e. carrying out government duties. A significant part of the Code is devoted to the procedure of legal proceedings and criminal law. Laws of the 17th century look harsh. Legal historians have counted 60 crimes for which the Council Code provides for the death penalty. The Code also regulates the procedure for military service, travel to other states, customs policy and much more.

Political development of Russia in the 17th century. characterized by the evolution of the political system from estate-representative monarchy to absolutism. A special place in the system of class-representative monarchy was occupied by Zemsky Sobors (Fig. 6.7). They included the “consecrated cathedral” (the highest clergy), the Boyar Duma and the elected part (curia). The elected delegates of the Zemsky Sobor represented the Moscow nobles, the administration of the orders, the district nobility, the top of the tax settlements of the Moscow Posad, as well as the service people “by appointment” - the Cossacks and Streltsy. State peasants were represented only once: at the Zemsky Sobor of 1613.

Rice. 6.7

As already indicated, the first Zemsky Sobor (Cathedral of Reconciliation) in the history of Russia was convened by Ivan IV in 1549 (Fig. 6.8). Cathedrals of the 16th century resolved questions about continuation Livonian War and the election of a new king to the kingdom. A special role in Russian history was played by the council of 1613, which elected Mikhail Romanov to the throne. In the first years of the reign of the young tsar, the Zemsky Sobors worked almost continuously and helped Michael in governing the state. After the return of Father Mikhail Fedorovich Filaret from Polish captivity, the activity of the cathedrals became less active. The councils decided mainly on issues of war and peace. In 1649, the Zemsky Sobor adopted the Council Code. The last Zemsky Sobor, which worked in 1653, resolved the issue of reunification of Ukraine with Russia. After this, zemstvo activity fades away. In the 1660-1680s. Numerous class commissions were assembled. All of them were predominantly boyars. The end of the work of the Zemsky Sobors actually meant the completion of the transition from an estate-representative monarchy to absolutism.

The Boyar Duma retained its high place in the system of government bodies and administration. However, in the second half of the 17th century. its value falls. The so-called Near Duma, consisting of persons especially devoted to the tsar, stands out from the composition of the Duma.

Rice. 6.8

High development in the 17th century. reaches the order control system (Fig. 6.9). Permanent orders dealt with individual branches of government within the country or were in charge of individual territories. All the orders that were in charge of the country’s defense and affairs can be classified as sectoral.

service class. This function was carried out by one of the most important bodies of government - the Rank Order. The local order formalized land plots and carried out court proceedings in land matters. The embassy order was in charge foreign policy states. Along with permanent orders, temporary orders were also created. One of them was the order of Secret Affairs, led personally by Alexei Mikhailovich. The order was responsible for supervising the activities of higher government institutions and officials.

Rice. 6.9

The main administrative-territorial unit of the state was the county. The local government system was built in the 17th century. not on elected bodies, but on the authorities appointed from the center by governors, to whom zemstvo and provincial elders were subordinate.

Social structure of Russian society in the 17th century. was deeply classed (Fig. 6.10). The term "estate" means a social group that has

rights and obligations enshrined in custom or law and inheritable. The privileged class were secular and spiritual feudal lords. Secular feudal lords were divided into ranks, under which in the 17th century. It was not so much the official position that was understood as belonging to a certain group of the feudal class. The top of the latter consisted of Duma ranks - boyars, okolnichy, Duma clerks and Duma nobles. Next in terms of their position in society were the Moscow officials - the capital's nobles. They were followed by the lower categories of the privileged class - the ranks of city officials, which included provincial nobles, called boyar children.

The majority of the dependent population were peasants. Non-serfs, personally free members of the community were called black-growing peasants, and the rest were called privately owned, i.e. belonging to landowners, or palace, or appanage, belonging to the royal family. Serfs were in the position of slaves. Residents of cities - artisans and merchants - were assigned to their duties, among whom the richest were called “guests.” The dependent classes also included military service people: archers, gunners and Cossacks.

LECTURE 4. RUSSIA in the 17th century.

At the last lecture, we talked about the Great Troubles, which began the new 17th century, and as a result of which a new Romanov dynasty found itself on the Russian throne. They were chosen for a number of reasons:

1. these were relatives of the first queen Anastasia, the wife of Ivan the Terrible;

2. Mikhail’s father was tonsured a monk and sent to the monastery by Boris Godunov, his mother was also tonsured a nun and her son was with her in the monastery;

3. this family did not participate in boyar squabbles and during the times of imposture;

4. Mikhail was 17 years old and the boyars believed that due to his infancy they would rule the Moscow state.

Therefore, a Zemsky Sobor was convened from representatives of all classes, including the peasantry. Candidates for kings were proposed to the council. Prince Pozharsky also put forward his candidacy. However, the bulk of the Zemsky Sobor participants shouted out the name of Mikhail Romanov. Thus, since 1613, the Romanov dynasty has been considered on the throne, but how true this is, we will talk a little later.

Lecture Questions;

1. The first Romanovs. Events that took place in Russia during the 17th century.

2. Political system Russia under the first Romanovs.

3. Russian foreign policy in the 17th century.

4. Russian culture and life in the 17th century.

1. The first Romanovs. Events that took place in Russia during the 17th century.

The first Romanovs include Mikhail Fedorovich (reigned 1613-1645) and Alexei Mikhailovich (reigned 1645-1676). To this time they also add the reign of Princess Sophia as regent of her younger brothers Ivan and Peter.

The main events of the time of the first Romanovs include:

1.stabilization of the internal life of the country, the establishment of relative order, the formalization of the legal status of the nobility, the Boyar Duma, Zemsky Councils and, accordingly, the strengthening of the autocracy;

2. church reform, which split society into those who accepted and those who did not accept the new interpretation of church services;

3.formation of larger military-administrative units - ranks in the border regions of the country;

4.in foreign policy, this was the century of Ukraine’s entry into Russia;

5. in culture and everyday life - the spread of education, the increase in the production of printed books, mainly religious content and textbooks.

In the first years of his reign, Mikhail, due to his youth, sickness and spiritual gentleness, could not do without the help and guidance of his elders. This help was provided to him by relatives on his mother’s side - the boyars Saltykovs, until his father, a monk, Filaret, returned from exile to Moscow. Most historians agree that Michael performed the formal function of the king, and his parents were the actual rulers.

However, the most important factor in his governance were the Zemsky Sobors, which provided significant moral support to the young tsar. Arriving from Kostroma to Moscow after his election, Mikhail did not dissolve the elected zemstvo people, but kept them with him. The elected officials changed from time to time, but the cathedral operated continuously in Moscow for 10 years and helped the Tsar in all important and difficult matters. The staff of the Zemsky Sobor was important for their awareness, knowledge of affairs in the country and its regions, and gave advice on various sectors of the economy.

Throughout the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich, the main feature of the Zemsky Sobors was a significant increase in the representation of the lower classes. Unlike the time of Ivan the Terrible and Boris Godunov, representatives of the nobles and townspeople played in the Zemsky Sobors under Mikhail Fedorovich. After the death of Patriarch Filaret (the Tsar's father), some nobles proposed transforming the Zemsky Sobor into a permanent parliament. But this did not suit the autocratic government and over time the Zemsky Sobors met less frequently at first, and then their activities were stopped altogether. One of the last to be convened was the Zemsky Sobor in 1653 and accepted the population of Left Bank Ukraine and Kyiv into Russian citizenship. Since then, power began to rely not on the representation of the population, but on the bureaucracy and the army. But the most recent council was convened in 1683, the main issue at which was supposed to be a discussion of the conditions of Eternal Peace with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, but its opening never took place due to hostilities.

The bodies of central government remained the Boyar Duma and the orders, but with a new composition. At first, the composition of the Duma was expanded. This is how Mikhail Fedorovich thanked those who supported his accession to the throne. If previously the Boyar Duma included about two dozen boyars, then by the end of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich its number increased to 100 people. Moreover, there were not only well-born boyars, but also representatives of humble families or even from the princely families of infidels.

The Duma was still called upon to resolve the most important issues - war and peace, approval of bills, introduction of new taxes, resolution of controversial issues, etc. The meetings of the Boyar Duma were led either by the tsar himself or by a boyar appointed by him.

Gradually this great thought became cumbersome and not very digestible for the king. Therefore, the so-called “close”, “small” or also “secret” Duma was created, which over time concentrated all power in its hands, and the Great Duma slowly died out.

The tendency towards greater power and greater centralization was a natural consequence of the prevailing conditions after the Troubles. The growth of the country's territory and the complication of economic problems led to a significant increase in orders. IN different time There were up to 100 orders in the country. The orders sought to strengthen their influence locally. Particularly important were: Ambassadorial, State, Local, Yamskoy, Petition orders; there were several orders in charge of military affairs - Razryadny, Streletsky, Pushkarsky, etc.

In the 17th century The main administrative unit remained the county, the number of which at the end of the century was 250. The counties, in turn, were divided into camps and volosts. From the second half of the century, Alexey Mikhailovich introduced new military-administrative units - ranks that united groups of fortified cities in the border regions of the country for defense against possible attacks.

The position of governor was widely developed, not only in border cities, but everywhere. The functions of the governor included:

1.be the executor of detailed orders and frequent individual instructions of the capital’s authorities - orders;

2.he was a representative of the administrative central government;

3.he was a tax collector, who had to deliver every last one to the royal treasury;

4.Together with his commanding people, the governor did not receive any salary from the tsar, and was not a “feeder”. He could only use voluntary gifts from the population, which led to arbitrariness, embezzlement, and extortion; Receiving such “gifts” was not condemned either by the government or by morals. This was all considered to be in the order of things. The moral level of the administration was low. In the absence of control and responsibility, there were no restraining principles at all in bribery. This led to the use of one’s position for personal, selfish purposes, which caused grumbling among the population and their discontent

The second most important innovation of Mikhail Fedorovich was the distribution of lands to the tsar’s closest associates. Up to 50 thousand acres of land soon went into the hands of the new court nobility.

Thus, we can say that through the efforts of the first reign of the new dynasty, the state was restored on the old foundations on which the policies of Ivan the Terrible and Boris Godunov were based. But at the same time, you should know that the period of action of the Zemsky Sobor is usually called in the history of Russia not only the period of the formation of autocracy, but also an estate-representative monarchy.

The reign of Alexei Mikhailovich can be called evolutionary in a number of aspects domestic policy. During this period, Russia began to form an absolute monarchy on the basis of the undivided dominance of the feudal-serf system. This was expressed in the withering away of Zemsky Sobors, in the evolution of the order system, the composition of the Boyar Duma, and the increasing importance of non-breed people in power, a victorious outcome for secular power in its competition with church power.

The most important events during the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich's son Alexei Mikhailovich was the adoption by the Zemsky Sobor of the Cathedral Code in 1649. Its drafting was entrusted to the tsar's close associates, headed by Prince Odoevsky. It is interesting that when compiling it, not only the existing codes of laws in Rus' were used, but also foreign ones. In addition, the young king himself participated in the development of laws. Russia lived according to this Council Code for about 200 years.

The Code reflected the increased role of the tsar in the life of the country. For the first time, the concept of “state crime” was introduced (against the honor of the tsar, his family, representatives of government and the church), for which severe punishment was provided.

The Code for the first time established in law the full right of the feudal lord to the land and dependent (serf) peasants. An indefinite search for fugitive peasants and a heavy fine for harboring fugitives were established.

Changes have also occurred in military system. Until that time Russian state relied on militias supplied by the boyars at the call of the tsar and the verdict of the Boyar Duma. This was a mounted militia of landowners, patrimonial owners and landowners, who were obliged to appear in case of need “horsed, crowded and armed.” In the clash with its western neighbors, the military-technical backwardness of the Moscow “military” people was revealed and this forced the Moscow government to organize regiments of the “foreign system”: soldier (infantry), reitar (horse) and dragoon (mixed), which were recruited from Russian free people and were trained by invited hired foreign officers. However, these regiments were formed only in case of war, and in peacetime they were sent home. It was not yet a regular army.

Of particular importance in the 17th century. acquired by church reform. The initiator of it was Patriarch Nikon, the former Metropolitan of Novgorod. He came to the post of patriarch at the suggestion of Alexei Mikhailovich. But the reform did not start out of nowhere. For many decades, there was a dispute among churchmen that the books copied by hand contained many distortions and errors compared to the original. Thus, many doubts were raised by the custom of polyphony during the service, when all those present used different prayers, or were baptized with two fingers, when everything came from the trinity, the three-handed Heavenly Lord. After the death of Patriarch Joseph, opinions were divided: some believed that it was necessary to return to the original, ancient Russian models, and others - to the Greek sources themselves, from which old books were copied. Therefore, Alexey Mikhailovich instructed Nikon to carry out such a reform according to the Greek model. It was held in 1653-1655. and concerned mainly church rituals and books. Baptism with three fingers was introduced, bows from the waist instead of bows to the ground, icons and church books were corrected according to Greek models.

The Church Council convened in 1654 approved the reform, but proposed to bring the existing rituals into conformity not only with Greek, but also with Russian tradition.

Nikon was a willful, strong-willed, fanatical person. Having received immense power over believers, he soon came up with the idea of the primacy of church power over secular power, over royal power. Essentially, he proposed sharing power with Alexei Mikhailovich. However, he simply stopped attending Nikon’s services and inviting him to state receptions, at which Nikon was offended and one day, during a sermon in the Assumption Cathedral, he announced that he was resigning from his duties as a patriarch and was leaving for the Resurrection New Rusalim Monastery. There he began to wait for Alexei’s repentance and the call again to Moscow. However, Alexey acted contrary to Nikon’s expectations. He invited patriarchs from other countries to Moscow, convened a church council in 1666, Nikon was brought under guard, and a trial was held for leaving the church and renouncing the patriarchate without the consent of the tsar. The hierarchs present at the council condemned Nikon and blessed his defrocking and imprisonment in a monastery. The Council supported the reform and cursed its opponents, the Old Believers, to be handed over to the secular authorities for trial. According to the Council Code of 1649, they all faced the death penalty. But Alexei Mikhailovich replaced it with imprisonment in monasteries. Cathedral 1666-1667 marked the beginning of a schism in the Russian Orthodox Church.

An outstanding leader of the Old Believers was Archpriest Avvakum (Avvakum Petrov) (1620-1682).

Thus, the 17th century became a century of different directions in the internal life of the country: from the Troubles to stabilization, then to the evolution of structures and systems of power, the emergence of laws, implementation church reform, became a time of decline of the zemstvo, collegial principle, and growing bureaucratization in both the central and local government of the Moscow state.