Types of interaction of organisms ecology. The main types of environmental interactions. State educational institution of higher
Do you know the environment?
2. What types of competition do you know?
3. What is symbiosis?
Ecological interactions of organisms.
In natural conditions, each living organism does not live in isolation. It is surrounded by many other representatives of wildlife. And they all interact with each other. Interactions between organisms, as well as their influence on living conditions, are a combination of biotic environmental factors. The ecological interactions of organisms are most clearly manifested in food and spatial relationships.
All biotic interactions can be divided into 6 groups:
- (0 0) - organisms do not influence each other;
- (+ +) - there are mutually beneficial between organisms useful connections- the so-called symbiotic relationship;
- (- -) - relationships harmful to both organisms;
- (+ -) - one of the organisms benefits, the other is oppressed;
- (+0) - one species benefits, the other does not suffer;
- (- 0) - one species is oppressed, the other does not benefit.
Let's consider in general terms the main types of interactions (Fig. 124).
If organisms do not influence each other, then neutralism takes place. (0 0). In nature, true neutralism is very rare, since mediated, or indirect, interactions are possible between all species, the effect of which we do not see simply due to the incompleteness of our knowledge .
For one of the cohabitating species, the influence of the other is negative (it experiences oppression), while the oppressor receives neither harm nor benefit - this is amensalism (Greek a - negative particle and Latin mensa - table, meal) (- 0 ). An example of amensalism is the light-loving grasses growing under the spruce suffer from strong shading, while the tree itself does not care.
A form of relationship in which one species receives any advantage, benefit, without bringing any harm or benefit to the other, is called commensalism (Latin com - with, together and mensa - table, meal) (+ 0). This type of relationship is widespread in nature... For example, large mammals (dogs, deer) carry fruits and seeds with hooks (like burdock), without receiving any harm or benefit from this. Commensalism is the unilateral use of one type of organism by another without harming it. There are several types of commensalism.
Freelogging is the consumption of the host's food leftovers. Arctic foxes in the tundra follow the polar bear and eat up the remains of its food.
Co-eating is the consumption of different substances or parts from the same resource. An example is the relationship between different kinds soil bacteria-saprophytes, processing various organic substances from rotted plant residues, and higher plants who consume the mineral salts formed in this process.
Lodging - the use by some species of others (their bodies or their dwellings) as a refuge or dwelling. This type of relationship is widespread in plants - an example is lianas and epiphytes (orchids, lichens, mosses), which settle directly on the trunks and branches of trees. Many species of arthropods live in nests of birds and in holes of rodents; some fish hide among the tentacles of jellyfish and anemones with stinging cells. The gorchak fish lays eggs in the mantle of a bivalve mollusk without harming it.
In nature, there are often mutually beneficial relationships in which organisms of different species gain mutual benefit from these relationships. This group of mutually beneficial biotic relationships includes diverse symbiotic relationships (+ +) of organisms.
A prerequisite for such a relationship is living together, a certain degree of cohabitation of organisms.
The simplest type of mutually beneficial relationship is protocooperation (literally: primary cooperation) (+ +). In this form, coexistence is beneficial for both species, but not necessarily for them. An example of such a relationship is the spread of seeds of some forest plants by ants, pollination of different plants by bees. In these cases, the necessary close connection of a particular pair of partners is missing.
A symbiotic relationship in which there is a stable mutually beneficial cohabitation of two organisms of different species is called mutualism (+ +). Such are, for example, the relationship between hermit crab and anemones (Fig. 125) or highly specialized plants for pollination with pollinating insect species (clover and bumblebee). Nutcracker, which feeds only on the seeds (nuts) of cedar pine, is the only distributor of its seeds. Mutualism is very widely developed in nature.
Typical symbiosis is represented by the relationship between termites and flagellates living in their intestines. These protozoa produce an enzyme that breaks down fiber into sugars. Termites do not have their own enzymes to digest cellulose and would die without the symbionts. And flagellates are obtained in the intestine favorable conditions environments and in a free state do not occur in nature. A well-known example of symbiosis is the cohabitation of green plants (primarily trees) and fungi.
Predation (+ -) - this type of relationship populations, in which representatives of one species eat (destroy) representatives of another, that is, organisms of one population serve as food for organisms of another. The predator usually catches and kills his prey himself, after which he eats it in whole or in part. These predators are characterized by hunting behavior. But in addition to predator-hunters, there is also a large group of predator-gatherers, the way of feeding which consists in a simple search and collection of prey. Such are, for example, many insectivorous birds that gather food on the ground, in the grass or in trees.
Predation is a widespread form of communication, not only between animals, but also between plants and animals. Thus, herbivorousness (the eating of plants by animals) is, in essence, also predation; on the other hand, a number of insectivorous plants (sundew, nepentes) can also be classified as predators (Fig. 127).
If in an ecological system two or more species (populations) with similar ecological requirements live together, a negative type of relationship arises between them, which is drunk with competition (- -). Competitive relationships will be discussed in the next section.
These are the main types of biotic relationships in living nature. It must be remembered that the type of interaction of a particular pair of species can change in different conditions and depending on the stages of their life cycles. In addition, the same species in a community may have different relationships with the surrounding species. Thus, interpopulation relationships in nature are infinitely diverse, and the study and knowledge of them is the most important task for ecology.
Kamensky A.A., Kriksunov E.V., Pasechnik V.V. Biology Grade 10
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Target: study the types of relationships between organisms.
Tasks:
educational:
Expand and deepen the knowledge of students about the types of relationships between organisms;
To increase the assimilation of information through the use of new computer technologies;
developing:
Develop the communicative culture of students;
educational:
To foster love and respect for nature, their small homeland;
Equipment and materials:
Multimedia projector;
Interactive board.
Software resources:
Office technologies (Microsoft Word, Microsoft Power Point, Microsoft Picture Manager);
Development of a multimedia presentation.
Lesson type: informational. Learning new material.
Lesson form: lecture with elements of heuristic conversation (dialogue).
Lesson methods: verbal, visual.
During the classes
- Organizational and motivational moment.
- Learning new material.
- Consolidation of the studied material.
- Homework.
Perception. This topic studied in biology lessons in both 9 and 11 grades. Also, this material can be used in ecology lessons. Therefore, homework is not prescribed.
Learning new material
1. Introduction by the teacher
Under natural conditions, every living organism does not live in isolation. It is surrounded by many other representatives of wildlife. And they all interact with each other. Interactions between organisms, as well as their influence on living conditions, are a combination of biotic environmental factors. Our task is to figure out what types of relationships occur in nature. (Slide 1.)
2. Acquaintance of students with the purpose and objectives of the lesson. (Slides 2, 3).
3. Populations of any organizations living in the same territory and in contact with each other enter into various relationships with each other. The position of the population (or species) with different forms of relationships is indicated by conventional signs. The sign (-) “minus” means an adverse effect (the species is being oppressed or harmed). The plus sign (+) denotes a beneficial effect (the species benefits). The sign (0) “zero” indicates that the relationship is indifferent (no influence). Thus, biotic relationships can be divided into 6 groups (slide 5).
4. We will study the types of relationships by filling out the table (slide 6).
| Relationship types | Characteristic | Examples of |
5. Let's consider in general terms the main types of relationships.
The teacher's story is followed by a slide show and the students fill out the table.
| Relationship types | Characteristic | Examples of | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Neutralism (slide 7) | Both species have no effect on each other. | squirrels and moose in the same forest do not come into contact with each other. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Amensalism (slide 8) | For one of the cohabitating species, the influence of the other is negative (he experiences oppression), while the oppressor receives neither harm nor benefit | Light-loving herbs growing under the spruce | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Commensalism Freelogging (slide 10.11) Co-eating (slide 12) Accommodation (slide 13-20) |
One species gains an advantage, a benefit, without bringing harm or benefit to the other: Consumption of host food leftovers Both species consume different substances or parts of the same food. One species uses the other (his body or his dwelling) as a refuge or his dwelling. |
Hyenas pick up the remnants of prey that have not been eaten by lions Different bacteria process different organic substances of decayed plants, and plants consume these minerals 6. These are the types of relationships in nature. It should be remembered that the type of interaction of a particular pair can change in different conditions, depending on the stages of their life cycles. Conclusion: All the listed forms of biological connections between species serve as regulators of the number of animals and plants in the biocenosis, determining its stability. 7. D / s? (Written in notebooks) 1. What can explain the long-term coexistence of competing species in nature? 2. What are the negative consequences of the destruction of predators in nature? Tasks to consolidate and check the studied material I give a number of assignments that the teacher can use at their discretion, both in the classroom and in compiling olympiad tasks, as well as in preparation for the exam Task number 1. Read the text and give a detailed answer to the question. 1. What could be worse than snakes? One area was "famous" for the abundance of snakes. They met almost at every step in the field, swarmed in heaps, crawled into yards and sheds. In the end, the locals “braced themselves” and declared a merciless war on the creeping creatures. The snakes were mercilessly destroyed, although, in truth, there were no cases of snakes attacking people. The fight was crowned with success. As a result of the victory, life in this area has become much worse. Why do you think? Answer. The area was attacked by mice! They spoiled food, destroyed grain on the vine and in storage, spread diseases. They began to fight with them with the help of pesticides - birds and useful animals began to die. The losses were enormous. Finally, one day someone guessed and brought several snakes from the neighboring area ... 2. Is a wolf a friend to a deer? In one of the Canadian reserves, all wolves were destroyed in order to achieve an increase in the herd of deer. Did you manage to achieve the goal in this way? Answer. The destruction of wolves will lead to the emergence and spread of diseases in the herd of deer, an increase in the number of weak and sick individuals, to the death and extinction of deer. How do I fix the error? - To release wolves into the reserve. 3. A garden apple tree, why are you not a forest one? Answer. V natural conditions the plants are surrounded by “protectors”. Tansy, wormwood, elderberry, mint - these plants secrete esters that have a very strong effect on insect pests. There is no such beneficial interaction in industrial monoculture. Task number 2. From the proposed options, select the correct one. 1. Interaction between the population of elk and titmouse in the forest: no one population directly affects the other. This type of interaction is called: 1) neutralism; 2) amensalism; 3) mutualism; 4) protocooperation. 2. Pine suppresses the growth of light-loving grass under it, itself does not experience a negative impact. This type of interaction is called: 1) commensalism; 2) amensalism; 3) mutualism; 4) protocooperation. 3. If in an ecological system two or more species with similar ecological requirements live together, relations of a negative type arise between them. For example, if a fox caught a vole, it means that the owl will not get it. This type of interaction is called: 1) competition; 2) amensalism; 3) predation; 4. A form of relationship in which one species gains some advantage, but without bringing any harm or benefit to the other, for example, the relationship between a shark and a sticky fish - this form of relationship is called: 1) protocooperation; 2) mutualism; 3) commensalism; 4) amensalism. 5. Freelogging - consumption of food leftovers for some organism (Arctic foxes in the tundra follow the bear and eat up the remnants of its food). This form of relationship is called: 1) commensalism; 2) amensalism; 3) mutualism; 4) protocooperation. 6. Co-eating - the consumption of different substances of the same resource (the relationship between soil bacteria, which process plant residues to mineral salts, and higher plants, which use the resulting mineral salts). This form of relationship is called: 1) commensalism; 2) amensalism; 3) mutualism; 4) protocooperation. 7. Housing - the use by some species of others as a refuge or dwelling (gorchak fish lays eggs in the mantle cavity of a bivalve mollusk; lichens on the bark of trees). This form of relationship is called: 1) commensalism; 2) amensalism; 3) mutualism; 4) protocooperation. 8. The relationship of which organisms are symbiotic: 1) legumes and nitrogen-fixing bacteria; 2) squirrels and moose; 3) pike and pike perch; 4) human and influenza virus. 9. What is the name of the relationship between ascaris and a person: 1) symbiosis; 3) competition; 4) predation.
10. The figure shows a hermit crab and anemones. What type of relationship does the relationship of these organisms refer to? 2) competition; 3) symbiosis; 4) predation.
Task number 3. Insert the missing terms from the proposed list into the text "Relationships of living organisms", using numbers for this. Write down the numbers of the selected answers in the text, and then enter the resulting sequence of numbers (in the text) into the table below. The relationship of living organisms There are different types of relationships between species of living organisms. A relationship in which one of the participants - ______ (A) - kills another ________ (B) and uses him as food is called _________ (C). A common case of this type of relationship is _____________ (D) - killing and eating their own kind.
Task number 4. Establish a correspondence between organisms and the type of relationship between them. To do this, select a position from the second column for each element of the first column. Enter the numbers of the selected answers in the table. For each correct answer 2 points. Only 10 points.
Used Books To prepare a presentation and a lesson outline.
For test items.
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Any two species of organisms living in the same territory and in contact with each other enter into different relationships with each other.
All biotic connections can be divided into 6 groups: none of the populations affects the other (0,0); mutually beneficial relationships (++); relationships harmful to both types (-); one of the species benefits, the other is oppressed (H--); one species benefits, the other experiences nothing (+0); one species is oppressed, but the other does not benefit (-0).
If the two species do not affect each other, then there is neutralism.(00). In nature, true neutralism is very rare, since mediated interactions are possible between all species, the effect of which we do not see simply due to the incompleteness of our knowledge.
For one of the cohabitating species, the influence of the other is negative, while the oppressor receives neither harm nor benefit - this is amensalism(-0). An example of amensalism is the light-loving grasses growing under the spruce and suffering from heavy shading.
A form of relationship in which one species gains some advantage without bringing any harm or benefit to the other is called commensalism(+0). For example, large mammals (dogs, deer) serve as carriers of fruits and seeds with hooks (like burdock), without receiving any harm or benefit from this. The manifestations of commensalism are diverse, therefore, a number of options are distinguished in it:
"Freelogging"- consumption of food leftovers from the host. Such are, for example, the relationship between lions and hyenas, picking up the remnants of uneaten food, or sharks with adhering fish;
"Companionship"- consumption of different substances or parts of the same food. An example is the relationship between different types of soil bacteria-saprophytes, processing organic matter of rotted plant residues, and higher plants, which consume the resulting mineral salts;
"Lodging"- use by some types of others (their bodies, their dwellings) as their shelters or dwellings. This type of relationship is widespread in plants - an example is vines and epiphytes (orchids, lichens, mosses), which settle directly on the trunks and branches of trees.
In nature, there are often mutually beneficial relationships between species, in which organisms receive mutual benefit (++). This group of mutually beneficial biological relationships includes diverse symbiotic relationships of organisms - symbiosis. A prerequisite for a symbiotic relationship-- cohabitation, a certain degree of cohabitation of organisms. A classic example of symbiosis is lichens, which are close mutually beneficial cohabitation of fungi and algae.
One of the types of mutually beneficial relationships (++) is and protocooperation(i.e. primary collaboration). In this form, coexistence is beneficial for both species, but not necessarily for them, which means it is not a prerequisite for survival. An example of proto-cooperation is the spread of seeds of some forest plants by ants, pollination of various meadow plants by bees.
A closer mutually beneficial relationship, in which the presence of each of the two types becomes mandatory, is called mutualism(++). Such are, for example, the relationship of highly specialized plants to pollination (figs, bathers, dope, orchids) with pollinating insects.
If two or more species have similar ecological requirements and live together, a negative relationship can arise between them, which are called competition(--).
In a general sense, the word "competition" means rivalry, competition. Indeed, when two populations use the same resources (all the more scarce), then between the species there is inevitably a rivalry for the mastery of these resources. At the same time, each species experiences oppression, which negatively affects the growth and survival of organisms, and the number of their populations.
Predation(H--) is a widespread type of relationship between organisms, in which representatives of one species kill and eat representatives of another. Predation is a form of food relationship.
A typical predator (wolf, lynx, mink) is characterized by hunting behavior. But in addition to predator-hunters, there is a large group of predator-gatherers, the way of feeding which consists in a simple search and collection of prey. Such are, for example, many insectivorous birds that gather food on the ground, in the grass or in trees.
STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER
PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
"STAVROPOL STATE MEDICAL ACADEMY"
FEDERAL AGENCY
HEALTHCARE AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
CHAIR OF BIOLOGY WITH ECOLOGY
A. B. Khojayan, A. K. Mikhailenko, and N. N. Fedorenko
Fundamentals of General Ecology
Tutorial for first year students
Stavropol, 2011
| 1. Ecology as a science, its place in the system of natural sciences …….… 2.The structure of ecology, its sections, tasks, goals, methods ……… .. …… 3. The history of the development of ecology as a science ………………… ………….… 4. Environmental factors of the environment …………………………………….… 4.1. The concept of environmental factors, their classification ……….… 4.2. Characteristic and value environmental factors………….… 5. Concept of habitat, classification and characteristics ……… 6. Interaction of the organism with the environment. The limiting factor… ... 7. Adaptation of organisms to environmental factors …………………………… 8. The concept of biocenosis, biogeocenosis, ecosystems, their characteristics 9. Relationships of populations in biogeocenosis. Power circuits …………… 9.1. Ecological pyramid ……………………………………………… 9.2 Ecological homeostasis ……………………………………………… 9.3 Ecological succession (change of biogeocenoses) ………… ……… 10. Biological productivity of ecosystems ………………………… 11. Population ecology. The concept of an ecological niche ……………… 12. Natural and anthropogenic landscapes. Agrocenoses ………… ... 13. Ecology and rational nature management. Characteristic natural resources and their classification ……………………………… 14. Global ecological problems of mankind ……………… 15. Main types of anthropogenic impact on nature ……… ... 16. General problems of nature protection ……… ……………………….… 17. Protected natural areas (landscapes) ………………… 18. Environmental monitoring of the environment ………………… .. 19. Organizations of environmental control of the environment ……… …………… .. 20. Ecological mini-dictionary …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. |
Three dangers of destruction of humanity exist in the world today -
nuclear, environmental and cultural hazards ...
In a sense, it can be assumed that the third danger, that is
Violation of the spiritual and behavioral apparatus led to the appearance of the first two.
V. Rasputin
Ecology(from the Greek. oicos- “house, shelter, dwelling”, logos- “science”) - a science that studies the conditions of existence of living organisms and the relationship between organisms and the environment. This term was first used in 1866 by the famous German biologist-Darwinist Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919) in his book "The General Morphology of Organisms".
“Ecology is a science that studies all complex relationships in nature, considered by Darwin as conditions for the struggle for existence” - this definition by E. Haeckel was written at a time when ecology was still an exclusively biological science, and the organism was considered the most complex level of organization.
From the point of view of modern biology, the subject of ecology study is all biological systems - from the organism to the biosphere.
Modern definition ecology Is a biological science that studies the structure and functioning of systems of the supraorganism level (populations, communities, ecosystems) in space and time in natural and human-modified conditions.
This definition was given at the 5th International Environmental Congress (1990 ).
Like other fields of knowledge, ecology has evolved throughout the history of mankind.
At present, ecology has gone beyond the purely biological science and turned into an interdisciplinary science that studies the most complex problems of human interaction with the environment.
Ecology has passed a difficult and long way to understanding the modern and global problem of "man-nature". Modern ecology studies the relationship between man and the biosphere, the technosphere with its natural environment, and the very process of penetration of problems and ideas of ecology into other areas of knowledge is called greening.
Greening education is a trend of the late XX - early XXI centuries.
Nowadays, ecology is being raised to the rank of a generalizing science, which is closely related to such sciences as biology, chemistry, mathematics, geography, physics, and includes ecological directions in the development of these disciplines. At the junction of ecology with other branches of knowledge, the development of such new directions as industrial ecology, agricultural ecology, engineering ecology, mathematical ecology, space ecology, geoecology, etc..
Ecology is closely related to politics, economics, law (including and international law), psychology, pedagogy, etc.
In particular, at the junction of ecology and classical ethics, environmental ethics, and at the intersection of the interests of ethnography, cultural studies and ecology - ethnoecology .
The earth as a planet deals with environmental problems global ecology, the object of study of which is the biosphere as a global ecosystem (ecosphere), and the relationship in the system "human society - nature" - social ecology.
One of the new independent branches of human ecology is the rapidly developing industry - valeology , considering the issues of acquiring the skills of a healthy lifestyle by a person.
Methodological basis ecological knowledge is a combination of a systematic approach, field observations, experiment and modeling.
Modern ecology has a complex structure. Allocate general and private ecology. The main goal of all these areas is to study the problem of the survival of living things in the environment, and they are faced with the tasks of biological content - to study the patterns of adaptation of organisms and their communities to the environment, self-regulation, the stability of ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole, etc.
In this understanding, general ecology is often called bioecology.
General ecology includes the main sections:
1. Autecology(from the Greek autos - itself) or the ecology of individuals, which studies the individual connections of an individual organism (species, individual) with its natural environment. She studies its habitat, ecological niche, limits of endurance to environmental factors, adaptation.
2. Demecology(from the Greek demos - people) studies the natural groupings of individuals of the same species - populations (elementary supraorganismic systems). Its most important task is to elucidate the conditions under which the population is formed, its structure, the dynamics of the population size and the relationship of intrapopulation groups.
3 . Synecology(from the Greek syn - together) or the ecology of communities (biocenology), studies the associations of populations of different types of plants, animals and microorganisms that form biocenoses, the ways of formation and development of biocenoses, their structure, dynamics, food chains, trophic pyramids, the circulation of substances and energy flows, their productivity.
At the heart of out-, dem- research is an individual (organism), population and species of a specific group of living beings (animals, plants, microorganisms), syn ecological research is aimed at studying a complex multispecies complex of interconnected organisms in biogeocenoses.
4. Megecology - (new ecology, global, socioecology), a field of knowledge that includes all sciences, including non-biological ones: social ecology, legal ecology, etc., which deals with environmental protection, rational use of natural resources, studies the consequences of anthropogenic impact on the biosphere - environmental pollution, degradation of ecosystems, ecological crises. She is engaged environmental issues PLANETS, the object of its study is the BIOSPHERE.
V private ecology distinguish: plant ecology, animal ecology, microorganism ecology, human ecology.
Human ecology studies the impact of the environment on health, human life as biological species, evaluates the comfort of the environment, the presence of poisonous, toxic substances, the incidence of morbidity, depending on living conditions and means of life support.
According to Reimers (1994), theoretical and applied ecology are distinguished.
Theoretical ecology reveals the general laws of the organization of life in ecosystems and the biosphere itself as a global ecosystem of the Earth.
Applied ecology studies the mechanisms of destruction of the biosphere by humans, ways to prevent this process, develops the principles of rational nature management based on the laws, rules and principles of fundamental (theoretical) ecology.
The tasks of theoretical ecology:
1) study of the relationship of organisms, their populations with the environment;
2) study of the effect of the environment on the structure, vital activity, behavior of organisms, the number of their populations;
3) study of the species composition of biocenoses and relations between populations of different species;
4) study of the mechanisms of transformation of populations and change of biogeocenoses;
5) study of the distribution of plant and animal species on the globe, depending on the climate;
6) modeling the state of ecosystems and global biosphere processes.
Applied ecology tasks:
1) forecasting and assessment of possible negative consequences in the natural environment under the influence of human activities;
2) improving the quality of the environment natural environment;
3) conservation, reproduction and rational use of natural resources;
4) optimization of engineering, environmental, organizational, legal, social and other solutions to ensure the protection of nature in the most environmentally disadvantaged areas.
The strategic task of ecology is considered to be the development of the theory of interaction between nature and human society on the basis of a new view that considers human society as an integral part of the biosphere.
Solving the challenges facing the environment will help achieve the goals set for it goals:
1. Development of optimal ways of interaction between society and nature, taking into account the laws of the existence of nature.
2. Forecasting the consequences of the impact of society on nature in order to prevent negative results.
Environmental research methods:
Field, laboratory and experimental observations and research (in vivo and based on ecosystem modeling), environmental monitoring, comparative and historical.
Field methods are observations of the functioning of organisms in their natural habitat.
Laboratory- allow to study the influence of a complex of factors of the environment simulated in laboratory conditions on natural or model biosystems. These studies provide a rough estimate that needs to be validated in the field.
Experimental- include the study of the influence of individual factors of the natural or simulated environment on organisms or ecosystems in the setting of an experiment.
Environmental monitoring- provides long-term monitoring of the functioning of ecosystems.
In addition to its own methods, the methods of such sciences as chemistry, physics, mathematics, cytology, histology, biochemistry, microbiology, genetics, etc. are widely used in ecology.
The need for knowledge that determines "the relationship of living things to the surrounding organic and inorganic environment" is reflected in the writings of Aristotle (384-322 BC).
Since then, three main stages can be distinguished in the history of the development of ecological knowledge.
First step- (until the 60s of the XIX century.). The origin and formation of ecology as a science: the accumulation of data on the relationship of living organisms with their habitat and before the first scientific generalizations. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. ecological information constituted a significant share in many biological descriptions (A. Reaumur, A. Tremblay, J. Buffon, C. Linnaeus, I.I. Lepekhin, S.P. Krashennikov, K.F: Rulier, etc.). In this period T. Malthus and J. B. Lamarck were the first to substantiate the negative consequences of the impact of human activities on nature.
Second phase- (second half of the 19th century). Ecology is becoming an independent branch of knowledge. This stage begins with the work of Russian scientists N.A. Severtsova, V.V. Dokuchaeva and others who proposed the basic principles and concepts of ecology that are relevant to the present day. In 1877 a German hydrobiologist K.Mebius introduced the concept of biocenosis.
He made a huge contribution to the development of the foundations of ecology Charles Darwin, who discovered the main factors in the evolution of living organisms. It was during this period (1866) that the German biologist E. Haeckel proposed the term "ecology".
Ecology as an independent science was finally formed at the beginning of the XX century. Generalizations and summaries of various foreign doctrines begin to be published ( C. Adams, W. Shelford and etc.). V.I. Vernadsky a fundamental doctrine of the biosphere is being created. In 1935 g. A. Tensley put forward the concept of "ecological system", and in 1940 a Russian scientist V.N.Sukachev proposed the concept of "biogeocenosis". In the second half of the XX century. ecology is of particular importance, which is associated with environmental pollution as a result of anthropogenic impact. The scientific foundations of nature conservation are being laid G.A. Kozhevnikov, V.V.Dokuchaev, S.V. Zavadsky and others.
Stage Three- (from the 50s of the twentieth century to the present). Transformation of ecology into a complex science, which has absorbed not only bioecology, but also sections of geography, geology, chemistry, physics, sociology; the theory of culture and economics (according to Reimers, 1994), as well as including the sciences of environmental protection. The modern period in the development of ecology is associated with the names of such prominent foreign scientists as Y. Odum, J. M. Andersen, A. Schweitzer, T. Miller and domestic scientists: I.P. Gerasimova, A.M. Gilyarova, V.G. Gorshkov, V.I. Danilov-Danilyana, Yu.A. Izrael, Yu.N. Kurazhkovsky, K.S. Loseva, N.N. Moiseeva; N.F. Reimers, Yu.M. Svirizheva, V.D: Fedorova, S.S. Schwartz, A.V. Yablokova; A.L. Yanshin and others.
Simultaneously with the development of theoretical foundations, applied issues of ecology were also solved. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. the works of outstanding scientists V.V. Dokuchaeva, G.A. Kozhevnikova, I.P. Borodin, D.N. Anuchin, S.V. Zavadsky and others, the scientific foundations were laid nature protection... In the 30-40s. in connection with the growth of industrialization of the country in Russia there is the new kind environmental activities - rational use of natural resources, and in the 50-60s it became necessary to create protection of the human environment.
Starting from the 60s of the twentieth century, almost every year government decrees were adopted to strengthen nature protection, laws and decrees were issued, but the destructive anthropogenic impact on nature continued. In 1986, the largest man-made ecological disaster in the history of mankind took place at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant.
V modern period Russia is going through a severe environmental crisis. About 15% of the territory is actually an ecological disaster zone, 85% of the population breathes air polluted by various harmful substances above permissible sanitary standards, the number of "ecologically caused" diseases is growing, degradation and reduction of natural resources are observed. Our society's way out of this crisis on the path of sustainable development lies, among other things, through environmental education.
Everything said above is eloquently summarized by the statement of the academician S.S... Schwartz: “Ecology - the science of the life of nature - is experiencing its second youth. Having emerged more than 100 years ago as a doctrine of the relationship between the organism and the environment, ecology has transformed before our eyes into a science about the structure of nature, a science about how the living cover of the Earth works in its entirety. And since the work of a living is increasingly determined by human activity, the most progressive-minded ecologists see the future of ecology in the theory of creating a changed world. Ecology before our eyes is becoming theoretical basis human behavior and industrial society in nature ”.
Environmental factors- these are certain environmental conditions that have a specific effect on the body. This concept was first introduced by E. Eversman (1840). Environmental factors are diverse, have a different nature and specificity of action. They may be vital- i.e. directly affect the vital activity of the organism, be necessary or, conversely, harmful, promote or hinder the survival and reproduction of organisms. They can be natural or man-made.
· By nature of origin:
all environmental factors are divided into three groups: abiotic (factors of inanimate nature), biotic (factors of living nature) and anthropogenic (human activity).
1. Abiotic factors include components and phenomena inanimate nature, directly or indirectly affecting living organisms. They are subdivided into:
a) climatic(temperature, light, humidity, precipitation, wind, atmospheric pressure, etc.);
b) edaphic (soil) -(chemical composition and structure of the soil, moisture capacity, water, air and thermal conditions of the soil, acidity, gas composition, groundwater level in the soil, etc.);
v) orographic(relief, exposure, steepness of the slope, elevation difference, height above sea level);
G) hydrographic(water transparency, fluidity, flow rate, temperature, acidity, gas composition, content of mineral and organic substances, etc.);
d ) chemical(gas composition of the atmosphere, salt composition of water);
e ) pyrogenic(exposure to fire).
Abiotic factors can also be divided into physical, chemical, and mechanical.
2... Biotic factors - a set of relationships between living organisms (intraspecific and interspecific relationships), as well as their impact on the environment.
Biotic factors include:
a) phytogenic(the influence of plants on each other and on the environment);
b) zoogenic(the influence of animals on each other and on the environment).
3. Anthropogenic factors reflect human influence or human activity on living organisms and the environment.
Depending on the nature of the impact, they are divided into two groups.:
a) factors of direct influence are the direct influence of a person on the body (mowing grass, deforestation, shooting animals, etc.).
b) factors of indirect influence are the influence of a person through economic activity (Agriculture, industry, transport, urbanization).
Depending on the consequences of impacts:
a) positive - planting plants, animal breeding, nature conservation, etc.,
b) negative - tree felling, environmental pollution, destruction of plant and animal species, etc.
· By importance for the body:
environmental factors are divided into two groups:
1.Primary (required) - these are the factors without which the organism cannot exist and with which it is in indissoluble unity. The absence of at least one of these factors leads to the death of the organism.
2.Secondary - they are not vital, but they can modify the existence of the organism, improving or worsening it.
· By the frequency of exposure to the body:
1.Periodic - recurring regularly (climatic, ebb and flow, some ocean currents).
2.Non-periodic - their the action has no periodicity (attack by a predator, volcanic eruption, etc.).
· By the nature of the action on the body:
1. Signals - informing the body about changes in the environment. 2 . Irritants - causing adaptive changes in processes and functions.
3. Modifiers - causing any structural and functional changes in the body (modifications).
4. Limiters - limiting the existence of species and individual populations in nature.
Limiters have the strongest effect on the body, and signals are the softest.
· Depending on the possibility of consumption by the body:
environmental factors are classified into Conditions and Resources .
Conditions- environmental factors that have a positive or negative impact on the existence and geographical distribution of living things, these are temperature, humidity, light, pressure, etc. The conditions are not consumed by the body and do not decrease.
Resources- everything in nature from which the body draws energy and receives substances (food) for its life, as well as places where certain phases of its development take place. Resources are subdivided into substances, energy, space. For example, green plants in the process of photosynthesis are used to build their body inorganic substances(mineral salts and water) are material resources, and the energy that is drawn from solar radiation is an energy resource.
But one and the same factor can be considered both as a Condition and as a Resource.
Classification of environmental factors (according to Y. Odum, 1975)
Abiotic factors- factors of inanimate nature, which are subdivided into climatic, edaphic, topographic and other physical factors. These include physical and chemical characteristics environment, as well as climatic and geographical factors that have complex nature: change of seasons of the year, relief, direction and strength of current or wind, forest fires.
Climatic factors
The most important of them are: light, temperature, humidity.
a) Light factor Light is the primary source of energy, without which life on Earth is impossible, its most important energy function is participation in photosynthesis. However, light is not only an energy resource for living organisms, but also an important environmental factor.In the spectrum of solar radiation, three regions are distinguished, differing in biological action: ultraviolet, visible and infrared.
1.Ultraviolet rays - wavelength less 0.29μm - these are shortwave and macroenergy-intensive rays, they are destructive to all living things. Only a small part of UV rays reaches the Earth's surface, most of them are blocked by the ozone screen. They have high chemical activity, have a powerful bactericidal effect, promote the synthesis of vitamin D, the formation of pigments, but in large doses cause damage to living cells, because UV rays are a powerful mutagenic factor.
2.Visible rays- wavelength 0.4-0.7μm... They carry the main supply of energy and are necessary for the life of organisms. For example, these rays are used by green plants to synthesize organic substances - food for all heterotrophic organisms.
3.Infrared rays - wavelength over 0.75 μm, are not perceived by the human eye, are a source of heat, thermal energy. They increase the temperature of the natural environment and the organisms themselves.
With the participation of light in organisms, the most important processes take place: in plants - photosynthesis, transpiration, in animals, with the help of vision, orientation in space, movement in search of food is ensured, many physiological processes are regulated, etc. Cold-blooded animals use light to heat their bodies. For some animals and chlorophyll-free plants, light is not a prerequisite for existence, and many soil, cave and deep-sea animal species are adapted to life in absolute darkness. Most animals
well distinguish the spectral composition of light and have color vision.
Therefore, for plants, light is a direct and necessary factor in life, for animals, light is an indirect factor, since life and photosynthesis of green plants, which are eaten by animals, depend on light.
Light intensity is important for plants. In relation to illumination, they are divided into: light-loving (can't stand the shadow) shade-loving (can't stand bright sunlight) and shade-tolerant (have a wide range of light tolerance).
And all organisms in relation to light are divided into epriphot - with a wide range and stenophot - with a narrow range of light perception.
Light is of great signal importance and induces regulatory adaptations in organisms. The most reliable signal is the length of the day, that is, the photoperiod. Photoperiodism - these are the body's reactions to seasonal changes in the length of the day, which is always the same in a given place, at a given time, which allows, for example, plants to determine the time of flowering, ripening at a given latitude.
The development of nature due to photoperiodism occurs in accordance with the bioclimatic law of Hopkins: the timing of the onset of various natural phenomena (phenodate) depends on the latitude, longitude of the area and its height above sea level.
It has been established that organisms do not respond to the amount of light they receive, but to the alternation of periods of light and darkness during the day.
Light response in nature has a daily and seasonal periodicity, which is due to the rotation of the Earth. Therefore, in response to changes in illumination during the day or year, animals have developed various adaptations. In different species of animals, activity is only at certain times of the day. For many organisms, a change in the length of the day serves as a signal for a change in seasons. By reacting to changes in the length of the day, organisms prepare for the conditions of the coming season. Each plant species has developed a yearly cycle of growth, reproduction, preparation for wintering. In many freshwater animals, the shortening of days in the fall causes the formation of resting eggs that survive the winter. For migratory birds, a decrease in daylight hours serves as a signal for the start of migration. In many mammals and birds, the maturation of the gonads and the seasonality of reproduction depend on the length of the day. As recent studies have shown, many people living in the temperate zone have a short photoperiod of winter time causes a nervous breakdown - depression.
Thus, living organisms are able to measure time, keep track of it, i.e. organisms possess biological clock. Every living organism has a sense of time. Animals feed, hunt, breed
offspring at a strictly defined time. In plants, petals close at night, leaves fall, etc. Photoperiodism is an important adaptation that regulates seasonal phenomena in a wide variety of organisms.
B) Temperature regime
Temperature is one of the most important abiotic factors. First, it works everywhere and all the time. Secondly, temperature affects the speed of many physical processes and chemical reactions, including the processes taking place in living organisms and their cells. Temperature is the most important environmental limiting factor. The limits of tolerance for any species are the maximum and minimum temperatures, beyond which the species is fatally affected by heat or cold. All living things are able to live at temperatures between 0 and 50 ° C, which is due to the properties of the protoplasm of cells, but various adaptive mechanisms developed by evolution significantly expand these capabilities towards both high and low temperatures. Therefore, the survival interval, especially of the population as a whole, can be much wider than that indicated, between the so-called lower and upper "resistance limits". In this interval, one can distinguish an "optimal interval" in which organisms feel comfortable, and the number of populations grows, and outside of it, they first find themselves in conditions of "reduced vital activity", where the organism feels oppressed, and then die either from the cold (for the lower limit of resistance), or from heat (beyond the upper limit of resistance) .This example of the effect of temperature on organisms illustrates the general law of biological resistance (according to M. Lamotte), applicable to any of the most important limiting factors: the value of the "optimal interval" characterizes the value of "resistance "Of the organism, that is, the value of its tolerance to this factor, or" ecological valence. "
Temperature is the most important condition for the existence of living organisms, since all physiological processes - metabolism, growth, development - are possible only under certain temperature conditions. Temperature changes the rate of flow physical and chemical processes in cells, affects the morphological characteristics of organisms, the course of physiological processes, their growth, development, reproduction, behavior, etc. The upper temperature limit of life is not the same for different species, but rarely above 40-45 ° C. Only a few species are adapted to life at higher temperatures.
In relation to temperature, all organisms are divided into two groups: cold-loving or cryophiles (able to live at low temperatures) and thermophilic or thermophiles (live at fairly high temperatures).
Organisms with a wide range of tolerance to the temperature factor are called - eurythermal , with a narrow range - stenothermal.
Invertebrates, fish, amphibians and reptiles are deprived of the ability to maintain body temperature, such organisms are called poikilothermic or ectothermic. Birds, mammals, including humans, are able to maintain a constant body temperature regardless of the ambient temperature, they are called homeothermal or endothermic.
In the animal kingdom, poikilothermic animals predominate, much less homeothermic animals. As for terrestrial plants, the temperature in their life is of no less importance: they die already at temperatures close to 50 ° C, and at temperatures below 0 ° C, some of the plants survive only thanks to special adaptations. Plants adapt in such a way as to protect their buds from frost under the snow, in the soil, etc., and animals increase their body weight, storing nutrients for the winter, so even animals of the same species in the north are larger than in the south. Physiological adaptations are important, the simplest of which is acclimatization, a physiological adaptation to enduring heat or cold. A more radical way of protection from the cold is migration to warmer regions, wintering - hibernation in winter. Most animals are inactive in winter, and insects generally stop in their development, a period of diapause begins.
c) Humidity
Water acts as an important abiotic factor, affects other environmental factors with their combined effect on the body and is a habitat for many animals and plants. All living organisms need water. Biochemical reactions in cells take place only in a liquid medium. Water for living organisms serves as a "universal solvent", in a dissolved form, nutrients, hormones are transported, harmful metabolic products are removed, etc. Increased or decreased moisture leaves an imprint on the external appearance and internal structure of organisms.
Water is the limiting factor in both terrestrial and aquatic habitats of organisms. In the ground-air environment, this abiotic factor is characterized by: the amount of atmospheric precipitation, but for organisms more important is the uniformity of their distribution over the seasons, which in temperate latitudes can lead to drought or waterlogging, in the tropics - to the alternation of wet and dry seasons; the humidity of the air is capable of changing the temperature: lowering the humidity below a certain limit at a given temperature leads to the drying effect of the air, which leads to the drying out of the soil, makes it difficult for the root system of plants to absorb water. Plants adapt to this by increasing the suction force and depth of the root system and transpiration - evaporation of water through the leaves, which takes 97-99% of the water. According to the method of adaptation of plants to humidity, several ecological groups are distinguished: 1) hygrophytes - terrestrial plants growing in high humidity; 2) mesophytes - grow in moderate humidity; 3) xerophytes - grow in places of low humidity - steppe plants; 4) succulents - desert plants (for example, cacti). Animals also distinguish their ecological groups in relation to water: hygrophilic (hygrophilous), xerophilic (dry-loving) and mesophilic (moderate humidity).
Animals regulate water balance in behavioral, morphological and physiological ways. Most desert animals can do without water, the source of moisture for them is food (rodents, reptiles, insects). Fat deposits serve as a kind of water reserve for organisms (hump in a camel, subcutaneous fat deposits in rodents). The low permeability of the outer covers (shells of mollusks, chitinous cover in arthropods) serves as protection against water evaporation in animals. In conditions of periodic dryness, many plants and animals develop a state of dormancy, characterized by a cessation of growth and development, a sharply reduced metabolism. Some rodents and turtles, with the onset of a hot and dry period in the desert, when the vegetation burns out, go into summer hibernation. The state of summer dormancy in perennial plants is often accompanied by shedding of leaves or the complete withering away of ground parts.
Edaphic or soil-soil factors
Edaphic factors (from the Greek edaphos - soil) - soil conditions for the growth of plants. Of these, the most important environmental factors are humidity, temperature, structure and porosity, reaction soil environment, salinity. Soil is a geological body, which differs from all clay and sandy formations similar to it in that it has fertility. Soil fertility is its ability to satisfy the need of plants for nutrients, air, biotic and physicochemical environment, including thermal regime, providing biogenic productivity of vegetation. The soil consists of a solid, liquid and gaseous component and contains living macro- and microorganisms. The solid component predominates in the soil and is represented by the mineral and organic parts. The organic part is presented humus- organic matter formed as a result of decomposition of dead organic matter. It plays a key role in soil fertility due to the nutrients in its composition, including nutrients. The humus content in soils is from tenths of a percent to 20-22%. The richest in humus are chernozems, they are also the most fertile soils. The soil biota is represented by fauna (earthworms, nematodes, etc.) and flora (fungi, bacteria, algae, etc.), which redistribute and process organic matter, up to the original inorganic components (destructors). The liquid component of soils is water. The most important environmental factors of soils are divided into physical and chemical. Physical include moisture, temperature, structure, and porosity. Chemical ecological factors of soils - the reaction of the environment (neutral, slightly alkaline) and salinity.
When characterizing soils as an edaphic factor, it is also important to take into account the physical and Chemical properties soils: mechanical composition, density, heat capacity, thermal conductivity, moisture permeability, aeration.
The main geospheric function of the soil is concentration.
Topography or orography
Orographic factors include: altitude, exposure, steepness of slopes, relief, etc. With altitude, the temperature decreases, the daily temperature difference increases, precipitation, wind speed and radiation intensity increase, atmospheric pressure and gas concentration decrease.
Biotic environmental factors- this is a set of influences of the vital activity of some organisms on others. Among them are usually distinguished:
a) zoogenic factors (the influence of animal organisms);
b) phytogenic factors (the influence of plant organisms);
c) anthropogenic factors (the influence of man and his activities).
The action of biotic factors can be considered as their action on the environment, on individual organisms inhabiting this environment, or the action of these factors on entire communities.
Many living organisms directly affect each other. Predators eat their prey, insects drink nectar and transfer pollen from flower to flower, pathogenic bacteria form poisons that destroy animal cells. In addition, organisms indirectly affect each other, changing their habitat. For example, dead tree leaves form litter, which serves as a habitat and food for many organisms.
a) Zoogenic factors... This connection between animals of the same or different species is, on the one hand, a necessary condition for nutrition and reproduction, the possibility of protection, mitigation of the impact unfavorable conditions Wednesday. On the other hand, it is the danger of damage, and often an immediate threat to the life of the animal.
Interaction between individuals of the same species (homotypic reactions) is manifested in group and mass effects, intraspecific competition.
The group effect is manifested in many species that can reproduce and survive normally only if they are represented by sufficiently large populations. For example, for the survival of African elephants, the herd must consist of at least 25 individuals, and the herd of reindeer must consist of 300-400 heads.
Mass effect refers to the effect caused by overpopulation of the environment. At the same time, there is such a phenomenon as self-restraint.
Intraspecific competition can lead to the differentiation of a species and to its disintegration into several populations.
Types of environmental interactions
Types of interspecies interactions:
1) Competition- views overlap each other negative impact;
2) Mutualism- obligate symbiosis (species cannot exist without each other);
3) Protocooperation- optional symbiosis (species can exist separately, but coexistence benefits both of them, for example, anemones and crabs);
4) Commensalism- one species benefits from cohabitation, another species does not, for example, the inhabitants of burrows;
5) Neutralism- the species do not have any influence on each other;
6) Amensalism- one species inhibits the growth and reproduction of another, for example, the coexistence of large and small plants;
7) Predation- eating of one species (prey) by another species (predator);
b) Phytogenic factors- forms of relationships between plants are: direct (mechanical), indirect (through animals, microorganisms).
Plants can be interconnected through animals, for example: entomophilia - pollination with the help of insects, ornithophilia - birds, etc., animals spread seeds and fruits of plants.
Environment of life- one of the main environmental concepts, which is understood as a complex of environmental conditions affecting the vital activity of organisms (individuals, populations, communities). Each individual has its own special living environment: physical, chemical and biotic conditions that do not go beyond the sensitivity and resistance of a given species to them.
The term "environment" in ecology is used in a broad and narrow sense of the word.
In a broad sense, the environment is the environment.
Environment Is a set of all living conditions (material bodies, phenomena, energies affecting the body) existing on the planet Earth.
Environment - in the narrow sense of the word - is a habitat.
Habitat Is a part of nature that surrounds the organism and with which it directly interacts. The habitat of each organism is diverse and changeable. It is composed of many elements of animate and inanimate nature, as well as elements introduced by man as a result of economic activity.
Hence: the aggregate natural conditions and the phenomena surrounding living organisms with which these organisms are in constant interaction is called habitat.
The role of the environment is twofold. First of all, living organisms receive food and energy from the environment in which they live. In addition, different environments limit the spread of organisms around the globe.
Water environment(hydrosphere) - occupies 71% of the world's area. The aquatic environment is inhabited by 150 thousand species of animals, which is about 7% of their total number, 10 thousand species of plants (8% of their total number). Rivers and lakes create a supply of fresh water necessary for a huge number of plants and animals, as well as for humans. As a habitat, water has a number of specific features: high density, strong pressure drops, low oxygen content, strong absorption of sunlight, etc. Characteristic feature the aquatic environment is its mobility. The movement of water ensures the supply of oxygen and nutrients to aquatic organisms, leads to equalization of temperature throughout the entire reservoir, because water has a high heat capacity and thermal conductivity and is considered the most stable environment in terms of environmental conditions, without sharp temperature fluctuations. In water, oxygen is 20 times less than in the atmosphere, and here it is the limiting factor.The number of species of animals and plants in the aquatic environment is much less than that of terrestrial ones, which suggests that evolution on land took place much faster. The richest plant and animal world seas and oceans of tropical regions - Pacific and Atlantic oceans... The bulk of the organisms of the World Ocean is concentrated in a relatively small area of the sea coast of the temperate zone.
In the World Ocean, the water column is called "peligial", the bottom is "benthal", the coastal part is "littoral", it is the richest in plants and animals. The inhabitants of the aquatic environment are called aquatic organisms. Pelagic organisms - nekton(fish, cetaceans) and plankton(lower crustaceans, unicellular algae, etc.), and the inhabitants of the bottom - benthos(bottom algae, fish). One of the specific features of the aquatic environment is the presence of a large number of small particles organic matter – detritus(high quality food for aquatic organisms).
The inhabitants of reservoirs have developed appropriate adaptations to the mobility of the aquatic environment, in particular, the streamlined shape of the body, the ability to breathe oxygen dissolved in water with the help of gills, etc.
The aquatic environment influences its inhabitants. In turn, the living matter of the hydrosphere affects the habitat, processes it, involving it in the circulation of substances. It is known that the water of all types of water bodies decomposes and is restored in the biotic cycle in 2 million years, i.e. all of it has passed through the living matter of the planet more than one thousand times.
Ground-air environment - The terrestrial environment is the most difficult in terms of ecological conditions. Environmental factors here differ in a number of specific features: strong temperature fluctuations, more intense light, varying humidity depending on the season of the year, time of day and geographical location.
A feature of this environment is that the organisms that live here are surrounded by air - a gaseous environment characterized by low humidity, density, pressure, and high oxygen content.
The air medium has low densities and lifting force, insignificant support, therefore there are no permanently living organisms in it - they are all connected to the ground, and the air medium is used only for movement and / or for searching for prey. The air environment has a physical and chemical effect on organisms. Physical factors of the air environment: the movement of air masses ensures the dispersal of seeds, spores and pollen of plants. Atmospheric pressure has a significant impact on the life of vertebrates - they cannot live above 6,000 m above sea level.
The chemical factors of the air are due to the qualitatively and quantitatively homogeneous composition of the atmosphere: under ground conditions, the oxygen content is at a maximum, and carbon dioxide- in the minimum of plant tolerance, in the soil - on the contrary - oxygen becomes a limiting factor for aerobes - reducers, which slows down the decomposition of organic matter.
In the course of evolution, the inhabitants of the terrestrial environment have developed specific anatomical-morphological, physiological, and behavioral adaptations. In the course of evolution, they developed organs that ensure the direct assimilation of atmospheric oxygen during respiration (stomata of plants, lungs in animals), complex adaptations for protection against adverse factors (protective body cover, mechanisms of thermoregulation, high mobility, periodicity and rhythm of life cycles, etc. .).
Soil environment. Soil is a complex three-phase system in which solid particles are surrounded by air and water. The soil also has peculiar biological characteristics, since it is closely related to the vital activity of organisms. All soil properties largely depend not only on climatic factors, but also on the vital activity of soil organisms, which mechanically mixes it and recycles it chemically, ultimately creating the necessary conditions for itself. The properties of the soil in their totality create a certain ecological regime, the main indicators of which are hydrothermal factors and aeration. Well-moistened soil warms up easily and cools slowly.
All soil inhabitants can be divided into ecological ones, based on the size of the degree of mobility: microbiotope, mesobiota, macrobiotope, macrobiota.
By the degree of connection with the environment: geobionts, geophiles, geoxenes.
A living organism is entirely dependent on the environment and is unthinkable without it. In nature, many abiotic and biotic factors act on any organism at once, they are closely interrelated and cannot replace each other. Environmental factors can have both direct and indirect effects on the body, and also act with different intensities.
The intensity of the ecological factor most favorable for the vital activity of the organism is called optimal, or Optimum.
The combination of environmental conditions that ensures the most successful growth, development and reproduction of a species (population) is called Biological optimum.
It often happens in nature that some environmental factors are in abundance (for example, water and light), while others (for example, nitrogen) are in insufficient quantities. Factors that reduce the viability of the organism are called limiting (limiting). For example, brook trout live in water with an oxygen content of at least 2 mg / l. When the oxygen content in water is less than 1.6 mg / l, trout dies. Oxygen is the limiting factor for trout. The limiting factor may be not only its lack, but also its excess. Heat, for example, is necessary for all plants. However, if the temperature is high for a long time in summer, then the plants, even with moist soil, may suffer from leaf burns. Consequently, for each organism there is the most suitable combination of abiotic and biotic factors, optimal for its growth, development and reproduction. The best combination of conditions is called the biological optimum. Identification of the biological optimum, knowledge of the patterns of interaction of environmental factors are of great practical significance... Skillfully maintaining the optimal conditions for the life of agricultural plants and animals, you can increase their productivity.
The greater the deviation from the optimum, the more destructive the effect of the ecological factor on the organism.
The range of action of the environmental factor has boundaries - maximum and minimum. The maximum and minimum values of the environmental factor at which life is still possible are called endurance limit(lower and upper limits of endurance).
The ability of organisms to withstand certain fluctuations in environmental factors, adapt to new conditions and master different habitats is called ecological valence (tolerance).
TOLERANCE Is the ability of organisms to withstand a certain range of changes in living conditions.
Species of organisms with low tolerance (living in a narrow range of environmental factors) are called STENOBIOTIC and with wide tolerance - Eurybiotic.
The ecological amplitude is the width of the range of fluctuations of the ecological factor, for example: temperature from -50 to +50.
When the organism is placed in new conditions, it adapts to them after a while, the consequence of this is a change in the physiological optimum, or a shift in the dome of tolerance.
Such shifts are called ADAPTATION or Acclimatization.
Limiting factor (limiting)- This is a factor, the intensity of which goes beyond the limits of the body's endurance.
In other words, the factor that is leading in limiting the adaptive capabilities of the organism in a particular environment is called - limiting.
For example, in the North, the limiting factor is low temperature, and in the desert - water. It is the limiting factors that limit the distribution of species in nature.
Tolerance curve
For example, temperature is the most important limiting (limiting) factor. For any species, the maximum and minimum lethal temperatures are the limits of tolerance; outside these limits, the species dies from cold or heat. Living organisms can live at temperatures from 0 to 50C with some exceptions. At optimal temperatures (optimal interval), organisms feel comfortable, multiply, and an increase in the population is observed. With an increase in heat within the upper limit of resistance and cooling within the lower limit of resistance, organisms fall into the death zone and die. This example illustrates a general law of biological resistance that applies to important limiting factors. The optimal interval characterizes the resistance of organisms (tolerance to this factor) or ecological valence.
In the middle of the nineteenth century. J. Liebig established the law of minimum: the yield depends on the factor at the minimum. For example, if phosphorus is contained in the soil only in minimal amounts, then this reduces the yield. But it turned out that if the same substance is in excess, it also reduces the yield.
Consequently, Shelford's law of tolerance (1913) says: the limiting factor in the life of an organism can be at least as well as a maximum of environmental impact, the range between which determines the value of the organism's endurance to this factor. This law also applies to information.
Despite the wide variety of environmental factors, in the nature of their impact on organisms in the course of evolution, organisms have developed adaptations to their impact.
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Adaptation- adaptation of the organism to the environment. The ability to adapt is one of the basic properties of life, since it provides the very possibility of its existence, the ability of organisms to survive and reproduce in specific environmental conditions. It was formed under the influence of three main factors - variability, heredity and natural selection.
Adaptation manifests itself on different levels: from the biochemistry of cells and the behavior of individual organisms to the structure and functioning of communities and ecological systems.
The main mechanisms of adaptation at the level of the organism:
1) biochemical - manifested in intracellular processes, for example, a change in the activity of cells or the synthesis of enzymes, hormones;
2) physiological (increased sweating with an increase in temperature in a number of species);
3) morphological - features of the structure and shape of the body, associated with lifestyle, habitat;
4) behavioral - the search for favorable habitats by animals, the creation of burrows, nests, migration, etc.;
5) ontogenetic - acceleration or deceleration individual development contributing to survival under changing conditions.
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Biocenosis is a dynamically stable community of plants, animals and microorganisms that are in constant interaction with each other and the components of inanimate nature. The term "biocenosis" was proposed in 1877. K. Moebius.
Each biocenosis consists of a certain set of living organisms belonging to different types... It includes: phytocenosis - a set of plants on a certain territory; zoocenosis - a set of animals in a certain area; microbiocenosis - a set of microorganisms that inhabit the soil; mycocenosis - a collection of mushrooms. A homogeneous natural living space occupied by a biocenosis is called biotope (ecotope).
A simple indicator of biocenosis diversity is the total number of species, or species richness. If any kind of organism quantitatively predominates in the community, then such a species is called a dominant, or dominant species. The distribution of species that make up the biocenosis in space is called spatial structure biocenosis. Distinguish between vertical (formed by tiers: the first is a tree layer, the second is a sub-log layer, herb-shrub layer, moss-lichen layer) and a horizontal structure of the biocenosis (forming various kinds of patterning, speckiness, etc.).
The components that form the biocenosis are interconnected. Changes that concern only one species can affect the entire biocenosis and even cause its decay.
The biocenosis is associated with inanimate (abiotic) factors, while a biogeocenosis is formed, which represents the historically established unity of the biocenosis and the inanimate habitat of organisms in a certain area.
Biogeocenosis- a stable, self-regulating, dynamic, interconnected, balanced system of living components (biotope) and components of inanimate nature (ecotope).
The term "biogeocenosis" was introduced by V.N. Sukachev in 1940.
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The main indicators of the characteristics of biogeocenoses :
1. Species diversity - the number of plant and animal species forming a given biogeocenosis.
2. Population density - the number of individuals of a given species per unit area.
3. Biomass - the total amount of organic matter, the entire aggregate of individuals with energy contained in it. Biomass is usually expressed in terms of mass on a dry matter basis per unit area or volume.
The higher these indicators of biogeocenosis, the larger and more stable it is.
In 1935 the English botanist A. Tensley introduced the term “ecosystem” into biology. He believed that ecosystems "from the point of view of an ecologist are the main natural units on the surface of the earth", which includes "not only a complex of organisms, but the entire complex physical factors forming what we call the biome environment are habitat factors in the broadest sense. "
Similar information.