Physics 11th grade
The best collection of rules for the Russian language. Spelling rules. Spelling of prefixes pre- and at

The best collection of rules for the Russian language. Spelling rules. Spelling of prefixes pre- and at

1. Unstressed vowel in the root.

To check an unstressed vowel in the root, you need to change the form of the word or select a word with the same root so that the stress falls on it.

G O ra – g O ry

B O rummaged - b O rushes

Not accepted And rimy – m And R

2. Alternation of vowels in the root.

3.Vowels O - E (Ё) after sibilants and C in different parts of the word.

1.Fundamentally words after hissing words are written under stress with the letter E (Ё). (in related words and forms of this word the letter E is written without stress. (vecherka - evening, cheap - cheaper) Exceptions: seam, rustle, saddler, hood, gooseberry, glutton, thicket, major

It is necessary to distinguish:

A) noun – burn, arson, verbs – burn, set fire

B) in words of foreign language origin:

jockey, juggler, shock, highway, driver.

C) in proper names: Pechora, Pechorin, Shostakovich

2. After C, the letter o is written in the root under the stress. unstressed

The vowel after T must be checked with stress. (base, whole -

whole)

3.In endings, suffixes nouns and

adjectives after hissing and C, the letter O is written under stress, without stress - E (chest, hut, big, red, little jackdaw, fighter, crimson)

4 .At the end of adverbs, the letter O is written under stress, without

accent – E (hotly, ebulliently)

5 .The letter E is written under the accent

a) at the endings of verbs (we take care, bakes),

b) in the verbal suffix –yovyva (shade)

c) in the suffix –er of nouns (conductor, trainee)

d) in the suffixes -yonn, -yon of passive participles,

from verbal adjectives, if they are formed from

verb with -it (completed - complete, stewed - stew)

d) in pronouns (about anything, nothing)

4. Vowels ы, and after ц in different parts of the word.

1. At the root of the word after C the letter I is written (number, circus) Exceptions:

gypsy, chicks, chick, chick, chick)

2.In words ending na – tion the letter I is written

(acacia, lecture, delegation)

3.In suffixes and endings the letter Y is written (birds, pages,

Sinitsyn)

5. Voiced and voiceless consonants.

To check the spelling of paired consonants b-p, v-f, g-k, d-t, zh-sh, you need to change the word so that after this consonant there is a vowel. (tooth - teeth, light - light)

6. Unpronounceable consonants at the root of a word. (combinations vstv, ndsk, stl, stn, etc.)

The word needs to be changed or a word with the same root must be chosen so that this consonant is heard clearly. (joyful - joy, whistle - whistle)

But: sn– wonderful – miracles.

7. Separating b and b

Kommersant

1. Before the letters E, E, Yu, I

after consoles

to a consonant

(to go around, to separate)

1. Before letters E, E, Yu, I, I

in roots, suffixes, endings.

(barrier, blizzard, fox, nightingale)

In difficult words

(three-tier, inter-tier)

IN foreign words:

adjutant, object, subject, etc. broth, battalion, signor, etc.

8. Soft sign after sizzling ones.

b is written

b is not written

1. Feminine in nouns

kind (night, rye)

1. In masculine nouns (knife, rook)

2. In all verb forms

(write, kindle, smile)

2. Plural in nouns. numbers

(lots of clouds, near puddles)

3. In adverbs ending in Zh, Sh, Ch (jump,

entirely) Exceptions: already married,

unbearable

3. B short adjectives(hot,

good, powerful)

4. In particles (only, huh, huh)

9. Vowels И –И after prefixes.

After consonant prefixes letter is written Y, if the word from which it is derived begins with the letter I (unprincipled - idea, summarize - result, play - game)

After consoles super-, sub-, trans-, inter- a letter is written AND ( inter-institutional, super-interesting, sub-inspector).

10. Continuous and hyphenated spelling of complex adjectives.

Together:

1. Formed from a subordinating phrase (ancient Greek - Ancient Greece, car repair - repair of cars)

2. Used as terms or expressions in bookish language (the above, the undersigned)

With a hyphen:

1.Denote the shade of color (light pink, red-brown)

2.Derived from a hyphenated noun (southwest - southwest)

3. Between the parts of the adjective you can insert the conjunction “and” (Russian-German - Russian and German, convex-concave - convex and concave).

4. Formed from a combination of a noun and an adjective, but with a rearrangement of these elements (literary-artistic - fiction)

5. Having the combination -ico (chemical-pharmaceutical) at the end of the first base.

Apart:

Phrases consisting of an adverb and an adjective are written separately. An adverb acts as a member of a sentence, indicating the degree of the attribute expressed by the adjective (genuinely friendly, sharply hostile) or in what respect the attribute is considered (socially dangerous, i.e. dangerous to society). Adverbs in –ski in the meaning of “likening” (damn cunning).

11. Not with different parts of speech.

Together

Apart

Without NOT not used ( all parts of speech)

can't, hate, unseen

There is a contrast with the conjunction “A” or it is implied (noun, adjective, adverb of O, E)

not the truth, but a lie

Can be replaced with a synonym or an expression similar in meaning ( noun, adjective, adverb of o, e)

untrue - lie, unknown - stranger)

There are words “not at all”, “not at all”, “not at all”, “not at all”, etc.

(adjective, adverb in O, E)

Not at all interesting, not at all beautiful

There are no dependent words and no opposition with the conjunction “A”

(participle)

unstuck, untold

There are dependent words or opposition with the conjunction “A” (participle)

not said in time

With verbs, gerunds

(didn't find it without searching)

With adverbs not in –O, E (not in a comradely way)

With negative and indefinite adverbs and pronouns (no one, several, nowhere)

With negative pronouns, if there is a preposition (not with anyone, not with anyone)

12. One and two letters N in suffixes.

Parts of speech

Nouns

Living room, toiler, herbalist

At the junction of morphemes

Fifty dollars, window sill

Adjectives

In the suffixes -in, -an, -yan

Gus in oh, leather en th

Excl.: tin, wood, glass

1) in adjectives formed using the suffix –n- from nouns with a stem in N (fog n y)

2) in adjectives formed from nouns using the suffixes -onn, -enn (arts enne oh, aviation he N y)

Except: windy

Participles and verbal adjectives

1) in short passive participles (error corrected en A)

2) in full participles and verbal adjectives formed from imperfective verbs (crash enй – there is no prefix and dependent word)

Excl.: slow, desired, sacred, unexpected, unprecedented, unheard, unexpected)

1) if the word has a prefix other than non- (dried)

2) if they include dependent words (sown through a sieve)

3) if the word has the suffix –ova, -eva (otsink ovann y)

4) if the word is formed from a perfective verb (lich yonn y - deprive)

Adverb

There are as many Ns written in adverbs as in the adjectives from which they are derived

(tuma nn o – tuma nn oh, excited nn o – vzvolnova nn y)

23. Letters E, I in case endings of nouns.

1. nouns have 1st declension in the dative and prepositional cases (in the grass - 1 cl., pp., on the road - 1 cl., d.p.)

1. nouns have 1st declension in genitive case(near the river – 1 cl., R.p.)

2. nouns have 2 declensions in the prepositional case (in the house - 2 cl., pp.)

2. nouns have 3 declensions (in mother, in the night)

3. for nouns with –i, -ie, -iya, -mya in the genitive, dative and prepositional cases

(attach to the stirrup (on -ya)), pick from the acacia (on - iya))

24. Conjugation of verbs, spelling of personal endings of verbs.

Put the verb in the indefinite form (what to do? what to do?)

II conjugation I conjugation

na –it na –et, -at, -ut, -yt, -ti, -ch

except: shave, lay (1 reference) except:

drive, hold, hear, breathe

endure, twist, offend, depend,

hate, see, look (2 questions)

the letter is written at the end And the letter E is written at the end

beautiful it– beautiful it count et – count ot, rut it– Mr. at(excl.)

when finding an indefinite form, take a verb of the same type (decorate - decorate)

Spelling of prefixes.

1. The letters Z-S at the end of the consoles.

In the prefixes voz-vos, bez-bes, from -is, niz -nis, once - races, through - thre before sonorous a letter is written with consonants Z, before deaf consonants - letter WITH.

(Ra h give - ra With bite, babe h sonorous - be With cordial)

There is no prefix Z: knock down, cut down, run away

There is no prefix in the words here, building, health.

In the prefix once (ras) - roz (ros) the letter A is written without emphasis, under the accent - the letter O. (to fall apart - sledges, scatter - scattering)

2. Prefixes pre-, pr-

Pre-

at-

1. It is possible to replace the prefix very, very much.

(Very big – very big)

1.Spatial proximity

(about) – school, seaside

2.Approaching, joining,

addition (to arrive, to screw,

join)

2.Close to the value of “re”

(transform, block)

3.Incomplete action (open slightly)

4. Bringing the action to completion

(come up with)

Spelling suffixes

1. Suffixes –EK, -IK of nouns

To write the suffix correctly, you need to decline the word (put it in the genitive case form). If a vowel is dropped, then the suffix -EK is written, if it is not dropped, then the suffix -IK must be written (lock - lock, finger - finger)

2. Suffixes of verbs -ova (-eva), -yva (iva)

If in the present or future tense the verb ends in -yva, -ivayu, then you need to write the suffixes -yva, -iva.

If it ends in -yu, -yu, then you need to write the suffixes -ova, -eva.

(conversations ova l, conversations ova th - conversations wow, story yva l – story I feel)

3. Suffixes of participles –ush, -yush, -ashch, -yash.

If the participle is formed from a verb of the 1st conjugation, then you need to write the suffixes -ush, -yush.

If the participle is formed from a verb of 2 conjugations, then you need to write the suffixes –ash, -yash.

(piercing – to prick (1 reference), dyeing – to paint (2 references))

4. Participle suffixes –EM, -OM, -IM

If the participle is formed from a verb of 1 conjugation, then we write the suffix -EM, -OM, if from a verb of 2 conjugations, then the suffix -IM

(visible – see (2 spr.), burnt – burn (1 spr.))

5. The letters O, A at the end of adverbs with prefixes –IZ, -DO, -S

If adverbs are formed from adjectives that do not have these prefixes, then we write the letter A.

If adverbs are formed from adjectives that contain these prefixes, then we write the letter O.

(before dry – dry, before urgently - before urgent)

On dull , V left (no prefixes –iz, -to, -s)

6. Suffixes –K-, -SK- of adjectives.

The suffix -K- is written:

1) in adjectives that have a short form (number To y – kolok, elm To y – mating)

2) in adjectives formed from some nouns with a stem in k, ch, c (German To y – German, weaver To yi – weaver)

In other cases the suffix –SK- (French) is written sk y - French h)

7. Suffixes –CHIK-, -SHCHIK-

After the letters d - t, z - s, zh, the letter Ch is written. In other cases, the letter sch is written. (bound Tchick, stone box- No letters d, t, h, s, g)

8. Vowels before -N, -NN in suffixes of participles, before the suffix of the past tense verb -L-.

If a participle or verbal adjective is formed from a verb ending in –at, -yat, then it is written before Н,НН letter A,Z(weigh A nnny – hung at).

If a participle or verbal adjective is formed from verbs that do not end in -at, -yat, then the letter E is written before N, NN

(roll up e ny - zasach it, crush e ny – red it).

Hyphen between parts of words.

Hyphenated spelling of adverbs.

Adverbs are written with a hyphen between parts of the word, which include:

1) the prefix po- and the suffixes -oom, -em, -i (in a new way, in a comradely way)

2) the prefix v-, vo- and the suffixes –ы, -и (secondly, thirdly)

3) prefix somehow (somehow)

4) suffixes -to, -or, -ni (kolda, somewhere)

5) complex adverbs that contain the same roots (little by little)

Indefinite pronouns with the prefix ko- and the suffixes that-or-, nibo are written with a hyphen (someone, some)

Compound words with half are written with a hyphen if the second root begins with L, with a capital letter, with a vowel. In other cases, gender in complex words is written together. (half a moon, half a watermelon, half a Volga, half a house)

Interjections, formed by repetition of basics (ooh-ooh)

Particles are joined to other words through a hyphen. (come on, take it)

Integrated and separate spelling of homonymous independent and function words.

Prepositions with other words are written separately. (on the river, on me, by five)

Derivative prepositions, formed on the basis of adverbs, are written together (to go towards the delegates).

Continuously derived prepositions are written: in view of (= for a reason), like (= like), about (= about), instead of, like, as a result of (due to)

Talk about exams, but put money into the account (noun)

Derivative prepositions are written separately during, in continuation of, according to

reason, for purposes, from the outside).

Unions also, too, so that are written together. They should be distinguished from combinations in the same way, the same as that. In these combinations, the particles could be omitted or rearranged to another place.

Mother studied at the institute. My father also studied there.

The same word, but not to say it that way.

Morphology(parts of speech).

Grammatical features of independent parts of speech.

Part of speech

Gram. meaning

Question to the beginning form

Constant signs

Variable signs

Syntactic.

role in the sentence

Noun

Item

Who? What?

Inanimate-inanimate, own or vernacular, gender, declension

Case, number

Subject,

Addition

Adjective

Sign

Which? Whose?

Qualitative, relative possessive; full-short, degrees of comparison

Gender, number, case

Definition, predicate

(short adj.)

Numeral

Quantity, order when counting

How many? Which?

Simple-composite, quantitative, ordinal, collective

Case, number, gender (for ordinal ones)

As part of any member of a sentence, definition (ordinal)

Pronoun

The meaning of the part of speech instead of which it is used

Who? What? Which? How many? Which?

Rank, person (for personal)

Case (for some), number, gender

Any member of the sentence

Verb

Action, state

What to do? what to do?

Aspect, transitivity, conjugation, reflexivity

Mood, tense, number, person or gender

Personal forms – predicate, n.f. – any member of the sentence

Participle

Item attribute by action

Which?

What do you do? What did he do? and etc.

Active or passive, time, aspect

Case, number, gender, full or short

Definition

Participle

Additional action

Doing what? What did you do?

How?

Type, return

circumstance

Adverb

Sign of action or other sign

How? Where? Where? When? For what? and etc.

Degrees of comparison

circumstance

Classes of adjectives.

Discharge

Signs

Examples

Quality

1. Answer the questions Which? Which? Which?

2. denote various qualities of objects: color, internal qualities of a person, state of mind, age, size of the object; qualities perceived by the senses, etc.

3. may have diminutive suffixes –ist, -ovat, - -enk, etc.

4. can have a short form and degrees of comparison

5. complex adjectives and adjectives are formed. With prefix not-

6. combined with adverbs very, extremely, etc.

More pleasant

Sick

Too light light – light

difficult

Relative

1.answer the questions which? Which? Which?

2. indicate the material from which the item is made; time, place, purpose of the item, etc.

3. have the suffixes –an, -yan, - sk-, -ov-,

4. do not have a short form, do not form degrees of comparison

5. do not go well with adverbs, too much.

Wood

Nautical

Possessives

Whose? Whose? Whose? Whose?

2. denote belonging to a person or animal

3. have the suffixes –ov, -ev, -in, -yn, -iy

Fox, fathers, wolf

Classes of pronouns.

Discharge

Pronouns

personal

1st person: I, we

2nd person: you, you

3rd person: he, she, it, they

Returnable

Myself

Possessives

Mine, yours, ours, yours, yours

Interrogative-relative

Who, what, which, which, whose, which, how many

Undefined

Someone, something, some, several, some, something, etc.

Negative

Nobody, nothing, none, no one's, not at all, no one, nothing

Index fingers

That, this, such, such, such, so much

Definitive

Himself, most, every, all, every, any, different, other

Digits of numerals.

By conception

By structure

quantitative

Ordinal

Simple

Complex

composite

Whole

Fractional

Gathering

Three,

Twenty five

One third,

One and a half

Two

Three

seven

Third, thirty-fifth

Fourteen, thirty

Five hundred, one hundred thousandth

One hundred and seventy-three, three point eight

Verb mood and tense.

Indicative

Conditional

Imperative

Denotes an action that is happening, has happened or will actually happen

Denotes an action that is possible under some condition (would read, would read)

Denotes an action to which the speaker encourages someone to perform (advises, asks, orders)

Present tense

Past tense

Future

What is he doing?

What did you do?

What will it do? (future complex)

What will he do? (future simple)

Is reading

I read, I told

will read

Formation of participles

From the present tense verb stem

From the stem of the infinitive

Present participles

Past participles

Valid

Passive

Valid

passive

1 reference

2 references

1 reference

2 references

Vsh

Enn

Ush, - yush

Ash

Box

Eat

Ohm

Them

More yushch th

Scream asch th

Ozarya eat th

Storage them th

Jump Vsh th

Carried w th

Pulled out enne th

Uvencha nn th

washouts T th

Formation of gerunds

Imperfect participles

Perfect participles

Suffixes -а, -я

Suffixes

Vsh

Lice

Lying down - lying down A

We are sitting - sitting I

Think - think V, I think lice

Get carried away - carried away shi sya

Classification of adverbs by meaning.

Adverb category

Questions answered by adverbs

Examples

Mode of action and degree

How?

Fast, fun, new, frequent, great

Measures and degrees

How many? How many times?

In what degree?

To what extent? How much?

A little, a little, a little, five times, too, completely, completely, twice

Places

Where?

Far, nearby, around, from within, from afar, everywhere

Time

When?

How long?

Since when?

How long?

Now, soon, long ago, now, on the eve, during the day, at night, in summer, early

Causes

Why?

From what?

For what reason?

In the heat of the moment, blindly, involuntarily

Goals

For what?

For what purpose?

On purpose, out of spite, intentionally

Special group make up pronominal adverbs:

Demonstrative adverbs – here, there, there, from there, then

Indefinite adverbs – somewhere, somewhere, somewhere, somewhere

Negative adverbs – nowhere, never, nowhere, nowhere

Interrogative relative adverbs - where, where, when, why, why.

Lilac blooms (when?) in the spring. (adverb)

Behind the spring(when? Why?) summer will come. (noun)

Adverbs with prefixes must be distinguished from consonant combinations of nouns, adjectives and pronouns with prepositions.

At first it was difficult. (when? – circumstance – adverb)

At first year (noun with a preposition, because there is a dependent word).

Got sick That's why and didn't come. (adverb, why?)

That's why The bridge is closed to traffic. (adj., over a bridge (which one?) – definition)

In the distance blue sand spinning. (in what? Where?)

In the distance The shepherd played annoyingly. (adverb, where?)

State category words - indicate the state of nature, environment, living beings, humans (damp, cloudy, offensive, funny, joyful). They are used in single-component impersonal sentences and are predicate.

Formation of degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs .

Parts of speech

comparative

Superlative

Simple

Composite

Simple

Composite

Adjective

Her(s)

She

Stronger

Earlier

Less often

more…

less…

More strong

Less strict

Aish(ii)

Eish (ii)

Strict

strongest

total (all)..

most…

least…

Deepest, highest quality

Adverb

Her(s)

She

Stronger, sooner, less often

more…

less…

More strongly

Less strict

Aishe

Yeishe

Strictly

total (all)..

most…

least…

deepest of all

best quality

To distinguish the comparative degree of an adjective from the comparative degree of an adverb, you need to look at which word in the sentence the form of the comparative degree depends on. If it depends on a noun, then it is a comparative degree of an adjective (in a sentence it is a predicate) - person thinner, Class friendlier.

If it depends on the verb, then this is an adverb (in a sentence it is a circumstance) - cut thinner, sing more friendly.

Functional parts of speech.

Pretext – serves to connect words in phrases and sentences. There are simple and compound, derivative and non-derivative.

non-derivatives

Derivatives from

Adverbs

noun

Participles

In, to, with, at, about, on, at, for, from, through, etc.

Along, opposite, in front, according to, around

As a result, like, in continuation, during, in relation to, in contrast to, towards, in view of, in conclusion, over, in connection with, due to

Thankfully, after, in spite of, in spite of, based on

Union – serves to connect homogeneous members and parts complex sentence. There are simple and compound, coordinating and subordinating.

Places of conjunctions by meaning.

Essays

Subordinates

1. Connecting (both this and that): and, yes, also, also, not only...but also, both...and

1. Explanatory: what, as if to

2. Adverse (not this, but this): but, ah, yes, but, however

2. Circumstantial:

Time: when, only, while, barely , as soon as, after, before, just

Target: in order to, in order to, in order to, for the sake of

Comparison: as, as if, as if, exactly

Cause: because, since, because, for

Condition: if (if), if

Consequence: So

Concession: even though, despite the fact that, let, let

3. Dividing (either this or that): or, either, neither...nor, then...that, either...either, not that...not that

Particle - conveys shades of meaning and serves to form some forms of independent words. By meaning there are formative and semantic. By category – simple, complex, compound.

(even, precisely, after all, just, hardly, as if not, etc.)

Particle discharges by meaning and function.

Semantic (express different meanings)

Form-building

(form word forms)

1. Denial: no, neither

1. form of the conditional mood of the verb: would, b

2. Statement: yes, yes, exactly, of course, yeah, yeah, definitely

2. form of the imperative mood of the verb: let, let, yes, come on, let's

3. Strengthening: even, even, already, and, really, well, still, after all, well

3. form of comparative and superlative adjectives: more, less, most

4. Question: is it really, really, what, what, how, how, what if

Exclamation: what the, how, well

Doubt: hardly, hardly, maybe

7. Clarification: exactly, exactly, exactly, directly, slightly, just, at least, at least, almost

8. Selection, limitation: only, only, only, almost, exclusively

9. Direction: here, and here, there, and there, this

10. Relaxation of the requirement: -ka

Distinguishing particles He and Ni

Particle NOT

NI particle

Not – meaning of negation

Misha Not went to the skating rink.

Not Misha went to the skating rink, and Yura.

Neither – negative particle with intensifying value:

A) increasing denial

In the sky Not was neither one lumen.

No neither wind, neither sun, neither noise.

In the sky neither clouds.

Two particles NOT – the meaning of the statement

Not Can Not talk about this trip. - I have to tell you.

B) strengthening the statement

Where neither I look around, thick rye everywhere. (I'll look everywhere)

The words may be: where neither, who nor, whatever and etc.

Interjection is neither an independent nor an auxiliary part of speech. Interjections are used to express:

Feelings, emotions (fear, joy, doubt, surprise, sadness, delight, sadness, etc.): oh, well, bravo, my God, wow, God be with you.

Speech etiquette (greetings, farewells, wishes, thanks, requests, etc.): thank you, thank you, goodbye, farewell, forgive me, please, all the best, hello.

Commands, orders, requests: na, fas, shh, hello, bye-bye, stop, chick-chick.

Syntax.

Collocation – several words related in meaning and grammatically.

According to the main word, phrases can be nominal (the main word is an adjective, a noun, a pronoun), verbal (the main word is a verb, participle, gerund), adverbial (the main word is an adverb).

Types of connections between words in phrases (by dependent word).

Coordination

Control

Adjacency

The dependent word is used in the same gender, number and case (adj., participle, pronoun = adj., ordinal number)

The dependent word is placed in the case required by the main word (noun, pronoun = noun)

The dependent word is related to the main word only in meaning

(adverb, gerund)

Prepositional

(with preposition)

Unprepositional (without preposition)

To an experienced teacher

Grew up by the road

Land development

Work with passion

Types of offers.

Types of offers

Examples

By the nature of the expressed attitude to reality

Affirmative(affirm the connection between the subject of speech and what is said about it).

Negative(the connection between the subject of speech and what is said is denied).

The long evening in October is sad. (I. Bunin)

No, I don't value rebellious pleasure. (A. Pushkin)

By the number of grammatical bases

Simple (consist of one grammatical stem)

Complex (consist of two or more grammatical stems)

A clear breeze rushes along the narrow street. (N. Rubtsov)

Dawn bids farewell to the earth, steam falls at the bottom of the valley. (A. Fet)

By the nature of the grammatical basis

Two-piece(the grammatical basis consists of a subject and a predicate)

One-piece(the grammatical basis consists of either only the subject or only the predicate)

I loved late autumn in Russia. (I. Bunin)

It's already quite dawn. (K. Fedin)

By the presence of minor members

Common(includes grammatical basis and minor members of the sentence)

Undistributed(have only grammatical basis)

Two drops splashed onto the glass. (A. Fet)

The lake was white. (I. Bunin)

According to the context and speech situation

Full(all necessary members of the sentence are present)

Incomplete(one or more sentence members are missing)

The whole city lay in darkness. (A. Fadeev)

Everything obeys me, but I obey nothing. (A. Pushkin)

Types of predicate.

Simple verb expressed in one verb form

Composite

Verbal auxiliary can, desire, want, begin, continue, finish or short adj. Glad, ready, able, must, intends+ infinitive

Nominal

Linking verb to be, to become, to do, to appear, to become, to seem, to be called+ nominal part: noun, adj., numeral, place, short adverb, adverb

In childhood, the rains were replaced by a rainbow. (S. Marshak)

The monkey decided to work. (I. Krylov)

The gold of the cross became white. (S. Marshak)

Secondary members of the sentence.

Definition

(which? which? Which? Which? Whose? Whose? Whose? Whose?) is emphasized by a wavy line

Addition

(who? What? To whom? What? Whom? What? By whom? What? About whom? About what?) is underlined with a dotted line

Circumstance

(where? When? Where? From where? Why? Why? How?)

underlined by a dotted line with a dot

Agreed

(adjective, participle, pronoun = adj., ordinal)

Direct (vin. case without preposition)

Mode of action (how? In what way?)

Inconsistent

(noun)

Indirect (indirect cases or vin. case with preposition)

Places (where? Where? From?)

Time (when? Since when? Until when? How long?)

Reasons (why? For what reason?)

Measures and degrees (To what extent? To what extent?)

Goals (why? For what purpose?)

Conditions (under what conditions?)

Concessions (in spite of what?)

Types of one-part sentences and ways of expressing the main member of the sentence.

Personalized

Verbal

Nominal offer ( main member sentences – subject, noun. in I.p.)

Midnight. Haze and wind.

Definitely personal(verb 1st, 2nd person, singular, plural; indicative, behavioral)

I'm going. Are you going for a walk? Come with me.

Vaguely personal(verb 3rd person, plural, present, everyday tense; plural, past tense)

Vita was given a player.

Impersonal(without personal verb, personal verb in the meaning of impersonal, infinitive, words of the state category, short participle, word No)

It's getting dark. It's cold outside.

Generalized-personal(verb 2 persons, singular; 3 persons plural present or future; 2 persons led moods)

Do not count your chickens before they are hatched.

Types of definitions.

Homogeneous

Heterogeneous

Characterize an object on one side (you can put the conjunction I between them)

They characterize an object from different sides, for example, by color and size (big red ball), you cannot put the conjunction I between them)

Depend on one word and answer the same question

They explain each other, that is, one of the definitions depends on the phrase that includes the noun being defined. and another definition (red ball Which? big)

Connected by a coordinating connection, i.e. do not depend on each other

Deprived of enumerative intonation

Pronounced with enumerative intonation

Isolated members of a sentence.

I. Separate definitions .

Any definitions in the form of a phrase (adverbial phrase, adjectival phrase) or individual words are separated by commas on one side or on both sides (within a sentence), if:

Refers to a personal pronoun

Exhausted, dirty, wet, we reached the shore.

They come after the noun they define.

Forest, finally shaking off the remnants of the night darkness, stood up in all his majesty. (B. Polevoy)

Before a qualifying noun, if they express a reason.

Driven by spring rays, the snow had already flowed from the surrounding mountains in muddy streams into the flooded meadows. (A. Pushkin)

II. Dedicated Applications .

Attachments in a letter are separated by a comma or two commas within a sentence if:

They refer to the personal pronoun

Us, doctors, this truly boundless patience is amazing. (N. Ostrovsky)

Common applications that come after the qualified noun.

A pineapple,a wonderful gift of tropical nature , looks like a large cedar cone weighing two to three kilograms.

Clauses appearing before a qualified noun if it has a causal meaning.

Native sailor, Voropaev first saw the sea as an adult. (P. Pavlenko)

III Special circumstances.

1. Circumstances expressed by gerunds and participles are always separated in writing by commas.

Suddenly she ran past me, humming something else.

The waves are rushing thundering and sparkling, alien stars look from above.

2. Circumstances expressed by a noun with a preposition despiteIn houses,despite the early hour , the lamps were on.

Note:

are not isolated

Participles with the meaning of an adverb. Yazykov covered his face with his palm and satwithout moving . (not moving = motionless)

Stable combinations and phraseological units, which include gerunds. He workedtirelessly .

IV. Separate clarifying members of the sentence.

To clarify detached member suggestions, you can pose an additional question Where exactly? How exactly? Who exactly? When exactly?

1. Circumstances of place and time: Left,at the dam , the axes were knocking.

2. Definitions: It was dominated by brown,almost red , the color of the soil and the unbearably blue hue of the sea.

3 . Isolated clarifying members of a sentence can be joined using conjunctionsthat is, or, as well as words especially, even, mainly, in particular, for example .

He's pretty good even with some special pronunciation , spoke Russian .

Additions with prepositions except, apart from, instead of, excluding, apart from, along with, over, etc..

Everyone has , with the exception of the Commissioner, things were going well.

Introductory words and sentences.

Groups of introductory words by meaning

example

Varying degrees of confidence:

a) a high degree of confidence (of course, of course, indisputably, undoubtedly, really, etc.)

b) lesser degree of confidence (seems, probably, obviously, perhaps, perhaps)

Mountain air, without any doubts, has a beneficial effect on human health.

Seems, your story made a lot of noise there.

Different feelings (fortunately, to general joy, unfortunately, to surprise)

Fortunately, our horses were not exhausted.

Source of the message (according to someone, according to someone, according to someone)

According to the doctor, the patient will be discharged from the hospital in a week.

The order of thoughts and their connection (firstly, secondly, finally, therefore, means, so, vice versa, for example, etc.)

Firstly, you need to learn the rule.

So, one desire for benefit made me publish this excerpt. (M. Lermontov)

Notes on ways to formulate thoughts (in one word, in other words, better to say, etc.)

In a word, this man had a desire to create a case for himself. (A. Chekhov)

Introductory words and sentences should be distinguished from other members of the sentence ( introductory words are not part of the sentence, they are not grammatically related to other words, they can be removed from the sentence).

Printing pages:

13,14 15,12

11,16 17,10

9,18 19,8

7,20 21,6

5,22 23,4

3,24 25,2

1,26

COLLECTION

RULES

IN RUSSIAN

To check an unstressed vowel in the root, you need to choose a related word or form of the same word so that this vowel is stressed.

Spelling alternating vowels in word roots

If the root is followed by a suffix -A-, in roots with alternating e(And) is written And, and in the roots -false-(-lag-) And -braid-(-kas-) is written A.

Fundamentally mountains(gar- O. Exceptions: fumes, soot, scorch(special and dialect words).

In the roots clone-(clan-), creative(creature-) in unstressed position is written O.

Fundamentally zor- in unstressed position it is written A. Exception: dawn.

Fundamentally -grew-(-growing-) before st And sch is written A. Exceptions: industry, sprout, outgrowth, moneylender, Rostov, Rostislav, Rostokino.

Fundamentally -skoch-(-with how-) before h is written O, before k is written A. Exceptions: jump, jump.

Spelling depends on meaning O And A in the roots -mok-(-poppy-) And -even-(-equal-):
-mok-- in the meaning of “to pass liquid”;
-poppy-- meaning “to lower into liquid”;
-even-- in the meaning of “smooth”, “even”;
-equal-- in the meaning of “same, identical”

Fundamentally -float- always written A: float, buoyancy. Exceptions: swimmer, swimmer, quicksand.

Spelling unpronounceable consonants in word roots

To check the spelling of roots with unpronounceable consonants ( stn, zdn, lnts, rdc) you need to choose a related word so that this consonant comes before the vowel.

Spelling O(e) after sibilants in the roots of nouns and adjectives

At the root of the word after the hissing words it is written e, if in related words it alternates with e; if it is formed from a verb or passive past participle.

O and Yo in suffixes and endings of nouns and adjectives

In suffixes and endings after sibilants it is written under stress O.

Spelling I-Y after C

At the root after ts is written And. Exceptions: gypsy, on tiptoe, chick, chick.
In suffixes and endings after ts is written s(except for words on -tion).

Spelling O(E) after C

In suffixes and endings under stress it is written O, without accent – e.

Soft sign in verb forms

b written in the indefinite form of verbs: wash your face, in the form of the imperative mood: put, in the form of 2 l. units: wash your face.

Spelling b

Dividing ъ written before the root e, e, yu, i after consonant prefixes and in foreign words after the following consonant prefixes: ab, hell, diz, in, inter, con, counter, ob, sub, trans, and also after the initial pan.

Spelling Y-I at the junction of prefix and root

After a prefix ending in a hard consonant, at the root of the word instead And write s(as we hear, so we write). In a word charge is written And according to pronunciation.
Note. This rule does not apply to compound words, for example: pedagogical institute, sports equipment.

After consoles inter-, above- saved And, since it is not written after sibilants and back-linguals s.

Saved And also after foreign language prefixes and particles ( counter-, dis-, trans-, pan-, sub-, post-, super-).

Spelling of prefixes

Spelling of prefixes pre- and pre-

Console at- used in the following meanings:
– “approach, accession, incompleteness of action, proximity”: sew, open, school.
- bringing the action to completion: tap.
– performing an action in someone’s interests: hide.

Console pre- used in the following meanings:
- "Very" ( highest degree manifestations): most unpleasant.
– “re-”: block.

Spelling of prefixes raz- (ras-) and other prefixes (without-, voz- (vz-), iz-, niz-, through- (through-) on z-s

In consoles on s-s s is written before the voiced one, and With- before a voiceless consonant.

Spelling of the root pol- as part of a compound word

Floor- written with a hyphen before root vowels, l And in capital letters. In other cases floor- written together.
Console semi- written together.

Spelling difficult words

Difficult words- these are words that are formed by combining two stems in one word.

Spelling compound words with connecting vowels O and E

O, if the first stem ends in a hard consonant.

Roots in compound words are connected using a connecting vowel e, if the first stem ends in a soft consonant, sibilants and ts.

Continuous and hyphenated spelling of compound nouns

They are written with a hyphen -
– names of cardinal directions: northeast, southwest;
– names of complex mechanisms and units of measurement: diesel engine, bed. Exception - workday;
– names of some plants: Blooming Sally;
– with initial foreign language elements vice-, label-, headquarters-, ex-.
– formed from two words of one thematic group(words-synonyms, antonyms, clarifying each other): misfortune(synonyms), raincoat (cloak and he - tent).

They write together Difficult words -
with a verb to And in the first part: daredevil. Exception - Tumbleweed;
with a genitive numeral in the first part of the word: fivefold. But: centipede(because not in direct meaning accounts). Exceptions: 90 (ninety-kilogram), 100 (hundred-meter), 1000 (thousand-year);
names of city residents: Almaty resident;
compound abbreviations: duffel bag.

Continuous and hyphenated spelling of adjectives

Adjectives are written with a hyphen:
formed from coordinating phrases: Russian-English dictionary (dictionary with Russian and English words);
expressing quality with an additional touch: light green;
formed from hyphenated nouns: New York;
The remaining complex adjectives are written together.

Spelling suffixes of nouns and adjectives

Noun suffixes

Suffix -chick written in nouns with the meaning of person after root consonants d, t, h, s, g, if there are no other consonants before them: defector; alimony worker.

Before the suffix -chick final consonant stems k, ts, h are replaced T: distribution - distributor.

Before the suffix -schik is written soft sign only after l: roofer.

Suffix -ek is written if when changing a word e drops out: padlock - padlock, But: key - key.

Suffix (unstressed) -ets- written in m.r. nouns: well, -its-- in nouns: gorgeous.

Spelling of participle suffixes

From the stem of the infinitive to -et, -it, -ti, -ch past participles are formed with the suffix -enn-.

From the stem of the infinitive to -at, -at Passive past participles are formed with the suffix -nn-, while verbal suffixes -A- And -I- in the sacrament they are preserved.
(A literate person. Tutorial. L.D. Bednarskaya, L.A. Konstantinova, E.P. Shchennikova)

Name: Collection of basic rules of morphology school course Russian language.

IN reference guide all the basic rules of the school course on the morphology of the Russian language are included. The collection is compiled taking into account existing textbooks and is intended for wide use by students.

Words of independent parts of speech have lexical meaning. Nouns refer to different objects around us. Adjectives denote the characteristics of these objects. Using numerals, you can count objects or indicate their order when counting. Pronouns, unlike nouns, adjectives and numerals, do not name, but indicate objects, their characteristics and quantities. The actions of objects are indicated by verbs. But the actions of objects have their own characteristics, which are called by such a part of speech as an adverb. The category of state as an independent part of speech denotes the state of nature, the environment and the physical and mental state of a person.

MORPHOLOGY. PARTS OF SPEECH
Independent parts of speech 11
Special verb forms 12
Functional parts of speech 12
Interjections 12
Noun. 13
Nouns, animate and inanimate 13
Proper and common nouns 13
Gender of nouns 14
Common nouns 14
Gender of inflected nouns
Changing nouns by numbers 15
Plural of nouns 16
Nouns with only plural form 16
Nouns with only singular form 17
Three declensions of nouns.... I17
Indeclinable nouns. ...... 19
Spelling NOT with nouns. ... 21
Spelling of noun suffixes -chik, -schik 22
Spelling compound nouns 23
Morphological analysis 25
Verb 26
Changing the verb by numbers. 26
Changing the verb by person 26
Spelling NOT s. verbs 27
Infinitive form of verb 27
Spelling -tekh and -you:ya
Spelling b after sibilants
Types of verb 29
Verb tense 29
Past tense 29
Present tense 30
Future tense - 30
Verb conjugation 31
Variable verbs 32
Transitive and intransitive verbs 32
Reflexive and non-reflexive verbs 33
Verb mood 33
And life-giving mood 33
Conditional mood 33
Imperative mood
Impersonal verbs 35
Spelling vowels in verb suffixes 35
Morphological analysis 36
Adjective 38
Changing adjectives by numbers 38
Changing adjectives by gender 38
Changing adjectives by case 39
Spelling vowels in case endings of adjectives 39
Spelling short adjectives with a sibilant base 40
Degrees of comparison of adjectives 41
Superlative adjectives 43
Places of adjectives 44
Qualitative, adjectives 44
Relative adjectives 44
Possessive adjectives 45
Spelling NOT with adjectives 46
Spelling -N- and -NI- with adjectives 47
Spelling compound adjectives. . . 49
Morphological analysis 50
Pronoun 52
Pronoun grades 52
Personal pronouns 52
Reflexive pronoun self 53
Interrogative pronouns 53
Relative pronouns 54
Indefinite pronouns 54
Spelling of the prefix NOT in indefinite pronouns 55
Hyphen in indefinite pronouns. . . 55
Negative pronouns 55
Combined and separate spelling NOT and NI in negative pronouns 5(5
Possessive pronouns 56
Demonstrative pronouns 56
Determinative pronouns 57
Morphological analysis 58
Numeral 59
Simple and compound numbers 59
Soft sign at the end and in the middle of numerals 59
Cardinal and ordinal numbers. Discharges. Numerals denoting the whole number 60
Fractional numbers 61
Collective, numerals 61
Ordinal numbers 62
Morphological analysis 63
Adverb 64
Semantic groups of adverbs 64
Adverbs of adverbs 64
Determinative adverbs 65
Classes of pronominal adverbs 66
Degrees of comparison of adverbs 66
Comparative degree of adverbs 66
Superlative adverbs 67
Morphological analysis 67
Condition category 67
Morphological analysis (IS
Special verb forms. Communion 69
Declension of participles and addition of their endings 70
Short and full passive participles 71
Valid iuichlgptch brushes of time. Spelling of suffixes -ush-(-yush-), and ash-(-yash) 72
Vowels about suffixes of active participles, present tense 73
Active participles of the present tense 73
Passive present participles, Spelling suffixes Vowels i suffixes of present passive participles 74
Passive past participles. Vowels before -Я- and -ЯЯ- in participles 75
-I- and -YA- in suffixes of full participles and verbal adjectives......... 76
-I- and -NI- in suffixes of short participles and verbal adjectives 77
Spelling NOT with participles 78
Letters E and E after sibilants in participle suffixes 79
Morphological analysis 79
Participle 81
Commas with gerunds and participles 81
Spelling NOT with gerunds 82
Imperfect and perfect participles 82
Morphological analysis 83
Functional parts of speech. Preposition 84
Prepositions are derivative and not about water 84
Prepositions simple and compound 84
Spelling of derived prepositions formed from adverbs 85
Integrated and separate writing of derivative prepositions
Spelling -E at the end of derived prepositions 8(5
Morphological analysis 87
UNION 88
Simple and compound conjunctions 88
Coordinating and subordinating conjunctions. . 88
Spelling conjunctions also, too, so that 89
Morphological analysis 90
Particles 91
Particle Discharges 91
Separate and hyphenated spelling of particles. . 91
Spelling particles NOT and NI 92
Morphological analysis 94
A special part of speech. Interjection 95
Derivative and non-derivative interjections 95
Isolation of interjections 95

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With rare exceptions, Russian is one of the least favorite subjects in school. Difficult tests, a lot homework and endless rules... Unfortunately, today's lessons do not help schoolchildren become more literate and, most importantly, do not develop speech at all. What's the matter?

Russian as a foreign language

Let's imagine ourselves in the place of a child. From birth he hears his native language and begins to speak it almost from the age of two. By the age of seven, future first-graders speak generally no worse than adults.

In first grade, the main task is to teach the child to write and read. How does the school deal with this?

It is during the first school year that a child masters and understands the important essence of our language: we say one thing and write another. Anyone who has already learned to read not syllable by syllable realizes that the word “milk” is read as “malako” and agrees with this.

Meanwhile, studying the Russian (native!) language in our school is reminiscent of studying a foreign language - the child is constantly given phonetic transcription, although he himself knows perfectly well how the words sound.

If a child is already reading, then he undoubtedly understands the difference between sounds and letters, since the process of reading, in fact, consists of translating letters into sounds. Transcription only interferes with the student, confuses him, not allowing him to remember the only correct form, “image” of the word.

This is how children already in the first and second grades do it once or twice phonetic analysis words “path”, determining the softness of consonants, the number of letters and sounds. For what? To safely forget about it in high school, remembering only before the State Exam and the Unified State Exam.

There is an opinion (and it is supported by textbooks) that it is thanks to the active study of phonetics in primary school children begin to write correctly. Alas, this is completely inconsistent with the observations of any parent - children now are no more (and perhaps less) literate than the previous several generations, who studied phonetics in grades 5-6 and no longer than one term.

Scary grammar

According to textbooks and workbooks, students learn literacy simply by applying and remembering rules or (if there are no rules) vocabulary words.

By the way, try to remember at least one rule (except for “zhi, shi write with the letter i”).

Case names? Endings of first declension nouns in the genitive case? And in general, what are first declension nouns? What about first conjugation verbs? Do you remember? Now think about what rules you regularly apply when writing?

Let us remember the rule for spelling vowels after sibilants in a suffix:

Under stress in suffixes of nouns and adjectives not formed from verbs, it is written O (girl, little gal), and without stress - E (song).

When a class "goes through" this topic, students do many exercises, most of which simply ask them to fill in the missing letter. In fact, the tasks themselves suggest where the rule is to be applied, just as, indeed, dictations on given topic. Once a section is “passed,” the exercises can be forgotten almost until the final exam.

Now let’s try to imagine ourselves in the place of a schoolchild who has learned a lot of rules, and now he just needs to write correctly (in general, we are all in this place anyway). There are no hints in the form of brackets or ellipses. To apply a rule, you must first generally understand the need for its application. How to do this? Let’s say a person writes the word “girl” and... what? There are three options:

the spelling of the word is not in doubt;

the spelling of a word is doubtful for some reason (why?);

a person checks every word in general, so he immediately identifies the root, suffix, selects a rule and corrects the error.

Do you think the latter option is common?

The fact is that in fact there are two options: either a person writes and does not notice the mistake, or notices it because he does not like the “look” of the word.

Many people call the second option “innate literacy,” although in fact it is not so much innate as acquired. Good visual memory and a love of reading help to remember the “images” of words, and, accordingly, write correctly.

Already in the first grade, schoolchildren are required to learn quite a lot of “dictionary” words, the spelling of which does not follow the rules. How are they taught? Yes, they simply rewrite each one 10-20 times in a notebook. And after that they write correctly.

This is where the dog is buried. In order to correctly write most words in Russian, it is not at all necessary to learn and apply the rules. It’s enough just to read and write more - rewrite texts from books and textbooks. Texts without gaps or ellipses, so that all important letters of the word are visible. Then that very “innate literacy” will be formed, which is so envied by those who are forced to constantly look into the dictionary.

By the way, in this regard, you can remember how they teach in our school foreign languages. In both English and French, no one crams the rules (and in any case, their number is simply not comparable with the number of rules in the Russian language), but they simply remember the type of word and its sound.

It turns out that many rules do not help to write correctly, they only organize the base of the language and create its “logic”.

Most people write competently, without applying rules or using them sometimes, and in this case they are often presented not in the form of rules, but in the form of convenient associations (for example, what is he doing? - bathing; what to do? - swimming).

By the way, despite such a simple rule, many people in in this case they still write the soft sign incorrectly... Why would that be? After all, they taught this at school!

Speech development? No, we haven't!

It is interesting that many Russian linguists, teachers and language historians of the 19th century put in first place not grammar, but the development of speech! The ability to read thoughtfully, understand and present what was read, and mastery of live speech a hundred and fifty years ago was considered a much more important skill than competent writing.

For example, Fedor Ivanovich Buslaev, linguist and language historian, who laid the foundation scientific study Russian folk literature, wrote:

“All grammatical teaching must be based on reading the writer. The main goal is for children to clearly understand what they read and to be able to express themselves correctly verbally and in writing.”

Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky, scientist and teacher, believed that studying the Russian language has three goals: speech development, conscious mastery of the treasures of the native language and mastery of grammar. Please note that grammar comes third!

Vladimir Petrovich Sheremetevsky, a teacher of the Russian language and methodologist, wrote that the subject of teaching the native language is the living word. And he again put students’ mastery of live speech in first place.

But at the beginning of the twentieth century, the scientific and linguistic orientation became stronger in the methods of teaching the Russian language, although attention was paid to the development of all aspects of oral and writing: pronunciation culture, working on vocabulary and phraseology, developing coherent speech skills.

But by the end of the twentieth century, despite all sorts of new techniques (and perhaps thanks to them), the Russian language as a subject was practically emasculated to pure grammar. Of course, in modern textbooks There are exercises for speech development, but there are few of them, and children and teachers do not pay much attention to them. And not before! There are so many rules to learn, so many analyzes to do, that writing an essay or presentation seems like a trivial task that does not require attention. It is not surprising that the skills of coherent speech (at least!) and coherent writing, the ability to correctly formulate thoughts are very poorly developed. But any fifth grader will do syntactic and morphological analysis in a couple of minutes.

But why, exactly, do we learn our language? Probably not for the sake of impressing the audience at a conference. parsing offers.

Word will correct ours grammatical errors, but, alas, it will not help with the ability to coherently express thoughts orally and in writing.

Meanwhile, children are drowning in a heap of rules and regulations, not even suspecting that the ability to speak, read and understand is much more important than declination and conjugation. It’s a pity that in the Russian language, endless study of the rules does not at all guarantee literacy; moreover, it instills an aversion to native language lessons (try finding a schoolchild who loves “Russian”).

M.: Astrel, 2005. - 94 p.

A clear, convenient and compact presentation of all the basic rules of punctuation and spelling.

Format: pdf/zip

Size: 380 KB

/Download file

SPELLING

Tested unstressed vowel at the root of the word 8

Unchecked unstressed vowel at the root of word 8

Alternation of unstressed vowels in the root of a word 8

Verified consonants in the root of the word 12

Unverifiable consonants at the root of a word... 12

Letters I, A, U after hissing 13

Spelling of vowels and consonants in prefixes 13

Letter I - after prefixes 13

Spelling of prefixes with -3, -С 14

Spelling of prefixes pre-, pr- 14

Letters I - Y after C 16

Dividing bars 17

Spelling words with half-, half-17

Declension of nouns 18

Spelling O - E after sibilants and C in the endings of nouns 20

NOT with nouns 21

Suffixes -chik-, -schik- nouns. . 21

Spelling of noun suffixes -ek-, -ik- and -ets-, -its- 22

O - E in suffixes of nouns after sibilants 22

Vowels -I-, -E-, -O- in noun suffixes 23

Spelling compound nouns. . 24

Spelling vowels in case endings of adjectives 26

Combined and separate spelling NOT with adjectives 27

Letters O - E after sibilants and C in suffixes and endings of adjectives 29

Spelling of suffixes -k-, -sk- in adjectives formed from nouns 29

Н- and -НН- in adjective suffixes. . thirty

Н- and -НН- in short forms of adjectives 33

Hyphen and continuous writing compound adjectives 33

Spelling of unstressed personal endings of verbs 34

Spelling NOT with verbs 36

Spelling -tsya and -tsya in verbs 36

Spelling b after sibilants in verbs 36

Spelling verb suffixes 37

Spelling of numerals 38

Spelling b in complex numerals. . 38

Declension of numerals 39

Spelling of indefinite pronouns 41

Spelling negative pronouns 41

Declension of participles 42

Vowels in suffixes of active present participles 43

Active past participles 43

Passive present participles 44

Vowels in suffixes of present passive participles 44

Passive past participles 44

Combined and separate spelling NOT with participles 45

НН- and -Н- in suffixes of passive past participles 46

Difference between short forms of participles and short forms of adjectives 47

Letters E and E after sibilants in suffixes of passive past participles 48

NOT with gerunds 48

Integrated and separate spelling of NOT with adverbs ending in -O, -E 49

Spelling NOT and NI in negative adverbs 50

N- and -NN- in adverbs ending with -O, -E 50

Letters -O, -E after hissing adverbs at the end 50

Spelling vowels at the end of adverbs 51

Hyphen between parts of words in adverbs 52

Spelling of prefixes in adverbs formed from nouns and cardinal numbers 53

Spelling b after hissing adverbs at the end 53

Spelling prepositions 54

Differences between prepositions and other parts of speech 54

Groups of conjunctions and their spelling 55

Spelling particles 57

Spelling particles NOT and NI 58

Spelling interjections 59

PUNCTUATION

Punctuation between homogeneous members 60

Homogeneous and heterogeneous definitions 61

Punctuation marks for generalizing words in sentences with homogeneous members 62

Punctuation marks when addressing 63

Punctuation marks for interjections 64

Participial phrase 65

Separate definitions and applications 66

Participles and participial phrases. Punctuation marks with them 68

Special circumstances 69

Isolation of clarifying members of sentence 70

Punctuation marks for direct speech 72

Indirect speech. Replacing direct speech with indirect speech 76

Quotes. Punctuation marks with them 78

Complex sentences. There are 80 punctuation marks in them

Missing comma in compound sentence 82

Complex sentences. There are 82 punctuation marks in them

Missing a comma in a complex sentence 85