What started the Korean War. How the Korean War began and continues to this day. Front line changes during the Korean War
Unfinished war. This is how one can characterize the Korean War of 1950–1953. And although hostilities ended more than half a century ago, a peace treaty between the two states has still not been signed.
The origins of this conflict date back to 1910. Then "Country morning freshness" - this is how Korea is poetically called, was annexed by Japan. And her dependence on it ended only in 1945.
Allies of Korea
After the surrender of Japan, the fate of Korea, the former province of the "Country rising sun"- the allies decided. American troops entered from the south, Soviet troops from the north. At first this was considered a temporary measure - the state was planned to be united under one government. But just under what? This was the stumbling block that divided the nation for many decades.
The USA and USSR formed governments in each of their parts, having previously withdrawn their troops in 1949. Elections were held, a left-wing government came to power in the north, and a right-wing government headed the southern part, with the support of .
Both governments had one task - to unite Korea under their rule. No one wanted to give in, and relations between the two parts of the country became tense. The constitution of each of them also provided for the extension of its system to another part of the nation. Things were heading towards war.
Korea's appeal to the USSR with a request
In order to resolve the situation in its favor, the North Korean government turned to the USSR and personally to Comrade Stalin with a request for military assistance. But Stalin decided to refrain from sending troops into the country for fear of a direct clash with the Americans, which could end in World War III. However, he provided military assistance, and by 1950 North Korea had become a sufficiently equipped military state.
Gradually, the leadership of the USSR was inclined to decide to help more openly North Korea establish communism by military means among our southern neighbors. This became possible thanks to the stated position of the United States, which stated that Korea was no longer within the sphere of interests of the United States. But this turned out to be not entirely true.
Beginning of the war
The war began on June 25, 1950. North Korean troops crossed the border. The number of attackers exceeded 130 thousand people. They were met by a larger army - their southern neighbors sent 150 thousand. But they were much worse armed and equipped - in particular, they did not have aviation or heavy artillery.
The North Korean army was counting on a quick victory - broad popular support for the established communist system was expected, but this was a miscalculation. Although the army advanced quite quickly - Seoul was captured three days later, and three weeks later it already controlled most of the country - but this did not bring a lightning victory.
The Americans did not expect such a development of events. They hastily began to arm parts of the South Korean army, while simultaneously acting in the international arena. The UN Security Council, convened on June 25, put the “Korean” issue on the agenda. The resolution adopted at this meeting stated that the Council condemns North Korean aggression and UN peacekeeping forces should stand up for South Korean sovereignty. It was supported by 9 countries - with Yugoslavia abstaining and the Soviet Union boycotting this meeting.
The countries of the socialist bloc criticized the actions of the United States and its allies in the “Korean” issue, while Western countries supported America's initiative, providing not only diplomatic support, but also military support.
Meanwhile, the military situation in South Korea was difficult. The troops of our northern neighbor conquered almost 90 percent of the country's territory. One of the most successful and significant military operations for the North Koreans was Daejeon. The army crossed the Kimgan River, surrounding the enemy group, which included the American 24th Infantry Division. In fact, its remnants were surrounded - the vigorous actions of the North Korean army virtually destroyed it completely, and the commander, Major General William F. Dean, even managed to be captured. But strategically, the Americans completed their task. Timely help was able to turn the tide of events. And already in August they not only stopped the enemy’s offensive, but by October they were able to launch a counter-offensive.
Allied help
The Allies supplied the South Korean army not only with ammunition, weapons, and armored vehicles, but also provided aviation. The offensive was so successful that the advancing military units soon captured Pyongyang. Capital of North Korea. The war seemed hopelessly lost. But this situation did not suit the management Soviet Union and China.
Officially, China could not enter the war, because the 270 thousand soldiers who entered Korean territory on October 25 were called “volunteers.” The Soviet side supported the Chinese invasion with air power. And by early January, Seoul was again under North Korean control. Things were so bad on the Allied front that the Americans were seriously considering the possibility of a nuclear attack on China. But, fortunately, this did not happen. Truman never decided to take such a step.
However, the victory of the North Korean army never happened. By the middle of next year, the situation had become a “stalemate” - both warring sides suffered huge casualties, but were not approaching victory. The negotiations that were held in the summer of 1951 did not bring any results - the armies continued to fight. Visit American President Eisenhower in November 1952 also did not clarify - how to resolve this complex and controversial Korean issue?
The situation was resolved in the spring of 1953. Stalin's death forced the leadership of the Soviet Union to reconsider its policy in this region. And members of the Politburo decided to advocate for an end to the conflict and the return of prisoners of war by both sides. But only two-thirds of the captured North Korean and Chinese soldiers wanted to return home.
Armistice Agreement
The agreement to cease hostilities was signed on July 27, 1953. The front line remained fixed at the 38th parallel, and a demilitarized zone was organized around it, which still exists.
The document was signed by representatives of North Korea and General Clark, who heads the American contingent. Representatives of South Korea refused to sign the agreement.
Subsequently, the parties still sat down at the negotiating table - in particular, a year later a peace conference was held in Geneva, at which an attempt was made to conclude a peace treaty. Each side tried to push through its own amendments to it, not wanting to compromise. The parties left with nothing.
In 1958, the United States, violating all agreements, placed nuclear weapons on the territory of South Korea, which were removed only in 1991. At the same time, an Agreement on Truce, Cooperation, Non-Aggression and Exchange was signed between these countries with the assistance of the UN.
The ongoing tension in the military-political situation on the Korean Peninsula is a consequence of one of the largest local wars of the 20th century, the fighting of which took place on it from June 25, 1950 to July 27, 1953.
In this war, moments repeatedly arose that threatened to transform the regional conflict into a global one, including due to the real possibility of the use of nuclear weapons (nuclear weapons) by the United States. It turned out to be characterized by the use of very significant human and material resources, the fierceness of the confrontation and the involvement, in addition to the armed forces of both Korean states (North and South Korea), the forces of the Chinese People's Republic(PRC), the USSR, the USA and a dozen and a half other countries that made up the multinational forces (MNF) of the United Nations (UN). The Korean War was the first large-scale military conflict since cold war”, which unfolded at the end of the Second World War.
The reasons that led to the outbreak of the Korean War, initially defined as a civil war, lie in the split of a united Korea and external intervention. The split of Korea into two parts was one of the results of the Second World War, at the final stage of which, in the fall of 1945, the country was conditionally, temporarily, divided by the Soviet Union and the United States along the 38th parallel (approximately in half) to liberate the peninsula from Japanese troops. The temporary administration of the country required the creation of civil authorities, which, given the various political systems liberator states, led to the emergence in 1948 of two states in the divided parts of Korea, built on the basis of opposing ideological platforms: in the north of the country - the pro-Soviet Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) with its capital in Pyongyang and in its southern part - the pro-American Republic Korea (ROK) with its capital in Seoul. As a result, attempts to achieve the unification of the country through peaceful means were practically exhausted by the beginning of 1949. At the same time, both Soviet and American troops were withdrawn from the country.
But, at the same time, neither Pyongyang nor Seoul thought of the Korean nation as divided, and the leaders of both sides (in the DPRK - Kim Il Sung, in the ROK - Syngman Rhee) saw the way out for unifying the country in the use of force. Indirectly, these sentiments were fueled by both the USSR and the USA by providing assistance in building armed forces in the divided parts of Korea. As a result, as the prominent Soviet diplomat M.S. noted in his notes. Kapitsa, both sides were preparing for war.
The Soviet Union initially assumed that the DPRK should be a buffer state, allowing it to avoid direct contact with the United States of America. This resulted in Moscow’s refusal, until the spring of 1950, to support the aspirations of North Korean leader Kim Il Sung to overcome the division of the peninsula by military means. But soon, in May of the same year, he nevertheless approved his intentions, although the formally positive decision was transferred to the Chinese leader Mao Zedong.
The Soviet leadership, with the support of the plans of the DPRK, took into account Pyongyang's achievement of military superiority over Seoul and did not assume US intervention in the war between the Korean states - on January 12, 1950, US Secretary of State Dean Acheson, speaking in Washington to reporters, outlined the American line of defense in the Far East along the line of Japan - Philippines - Okinawa, which meant classifying South Korea as a non-priority country for the United States of America.
The approval of Kim Il Sung’s plans was also facilitated by two important events of global significance: the emergence of nuclear weapons in the USSR and the proclamation of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. A significant argument was the fact that the North Koreans were able to convince both Moscow and Beijing that a revolutionary situation had developed in the south of the Korean Peninsula, which, in the event of an armed action by the DPRK, will lead to a nationwide uprising in South Korea and the elimination of the pro-American regime of Syngman Rhee.
At the same time, since the beginning of 1950, Washington’s position has undergone qualitative changes towards the formation of a policy of tough response to the allegedly intensifying attempts to weaken US influence on the world community. Against the backdrop of the unfolding Cold War, the Truman administration was accused of being unable to confront strategic challenges, which were then considered the Berlin crisis of 1948, the defeat of Chiang Kai-shek in China, etc. The situation was also made more acute by the fall in the ratings of the US President in the year of midterm congressional elections in the country.
As a result, in the spring of 1950 the Council national security The United States has made changes to the country's strategy and diplomacy in the Far East. The Council Directive NSC-68 identified South Korea and Japan as potential subjects of Soviet expansion. Therefore, by the beginning of the Korean War, the United States of America found itself prepared for an active political and diplomatic demarche and direct entry into the war against “communist aggression.” The very contents of the directive were known to a very narrow circle of the American administration.
As for the PRC's position on the Korean Peninsula, first of all, it was determined by the fact that Kim Il Sung's military successes could lead to an increase in communist influence in Asia and, of course, the influence of Beijing itself, with calculations for US non-interference in upcoming events on the peninsula and the presence of a revolutionary situation in South Korea, which will contribute to a North Korean victory. At the same time, the Chinese realized that if the plan they approved failed in the DPRK, there might be the prospect of American troops appearing on the 700 km long Sino-Korean border. This was unacceptable to them and could ultimately lead to the armed participation of the PRC in Korea.
So, both the South and the North were preparing for war on the peninsula. The US trained and armed the South Korean army. With the help of the USSR, the Korean People's Army (KPA) was created in the DPRK. Armed clashes took place between both sides to varying degrees jokes during 1949-1950. Each of them could mark its beginning. On the eve of the opening of hostilities by the KPA against the armed forces of South Korea, which unfolded on June 25, 1950 in response to an allegedly provoked border incident in the area of the 38th parallel, the composition of the opposing forces was as follows.
The KPA consisted of 10 infantry divisions, a tank brigade, 6 separate regiments, 4 brigades of internal and border guards (part of the Ministry of Internal Affairs), an aviation division, 4 divisions of ships (sea hunters and torpedo boats, minesweepers), 2 regiments Marine Corps, Coast Guard Regiment. The combat units were armed with about 1,600 guns and mortars, 260 tanks and self-propelled artillery units (SPG), 170 combat aircraft, including 90 Il-10 attack aircraft and 80 Yak-9, 20 ships. The strength of the DPRK armed forces was 188 thousand people. Their first priority was to defeat the enemy by encircling and subsequently destroying his main forces in the Seoul area.
In the South, an army equipped with modern weapons was created, prepared for offensive military operations. It consisted of 8 infantry divisions, a separate cavalry regiment and 12 separate battalions for various purposes, an aviation detachment, 5 ship divisions, a marine regiment, and 9 coast guard detachments. In addition, the territorial army included 5 brigades, considered as an organized reserve of the armed forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Also, special detachments of up to 20 thousand people, intended for counter-guerrilla operations, were located in the ranks of the police. The total number of South Korean armed forces was 161 thousand people. The combat units were armed with about 700 guns and mortars, 30 tanks and self-propelled guns, 40 aircraft, including 25 fighters, and 71 ships. As can be seen, the balance of forces and means in June 1950 was in favor of the KPA.
The United States had significant forces in the immediate vicinity of the Korean Peninsula from the main command of the country's armed forces in the Far East, with headquarters in Tokyo under the leadership of General D. MacArthur. Thus, the 8th Army was stationed in Japan (3 infantry and cavalry division), on the Ryukyu and Guam islands - each a separate infantry regiment. The US Air Force was represented by the 5th air army(VA) in Japan, 20 VA - on the island. Okinawa, 13 VA - in the Philippines.
The US Navy had 26 ships of the 7th Fleet in the region (an aircraft carrier, 2 cruisers, 12 destroyers, 4 submarines, about 140 aircraft). The total number of US forces that could be used in military operations on the Korean Peninsula is relatively short time, was approaching 200 thousand people. The aviation component of the US troops in the region was especially powerful - 1040 aircraft, including 730 in Japan. It is obvious that, in the event of intervention in the war on the Korean Peninsula, the US Armed Forces were able to ensure complete superiority in the air and at sea.
Multinational UN forces took part in the hostilities in Korea - troops of states that supported the UN Security Council (SC) resolution of June 27, 1950 on providing military assistance to South Korea in the outbreak of war with the DPRK. Among them: Australia, Belgium, Great Britain, Greece, Canada, Colombia, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Thailand, Turkey, the Philippines, France, Ethiopia and the Union of South Africa. Military medical units were provided by India, Italy, Norway, and Sweden. In total, the strength of the so-called southern coalition of troops ranged from 900 thousand to 1.1 million people, including the ROK Armed Forces - up to 600 thousand people, the US Armed Forces - up to 400 thousand, the Armed Forces of the above allies - up to 100 thousand people .
General Douglas MacArthur
In a critical situation for the DPRK, when US and ROK troops, operating under the UN flag, crossed the 38th parallel in November 1950 and began to approach the Korean-Chinese border, the PRC and the USSR came to the aid of the North. The first provided a powerful group ground forces under the guise of Chinese people's volunteers as part of two army groups under the command of Colonel General Peng Dehuai, initially with a total number of 260 thousand people, which later increased to 780 thousand people. The Soviet Union, for its part, committed itself to providing air cover for the northeastern part of the territory of the PRC and the adjacent part of the DPRK.
For this purpose, a group of Soviet aviation was urgently formed, organizationally formalized as the 64th Fighter Aviation Corps (IAK). The composition of the forces and means was variable; in addition to fighter aircraft, it included anti-aircraft artillery units, aviation technical and radio technical units. The total number of personnel reached about 30 thousand people, including about 450 pilots. The corps was armed with more than 300 aircraft, mainly MiG-15. Thus, the maximum number of troops of the northern coalition was about 1.06 million people, taking into account the total number of KPA troops of 260 thousand people.
North Korean troops began military operations against South Korea quite successfully. Already on the third day of the war they captured its capital, Seoul. But which began in its essence Civil War quickly escalated into a regional conflict due to the intervention of the United States and its allies in events on the peninsula. The fact is that the US actions did not coincide with the expected forecasts and calculations; Washington behaved very decisively, immediately concentrating its efforts in several areas: providing South Korea with direct military assistance from forces stationed in Japan; consultations with allies in the military-political NATO bloc; formation of a military coalition against the DPRK under the UN flag.
On June 27, 1950, the United Nations Security Council approved a resolution allowing the use of American troops in Korea and recommended that other UN member countries voluntarily support US action. On July 7, the UN Security Council approved the creation of a multinational UN force under the leadership of Washington to wage war on the Korean Peninsula against the aggressor state, which was considered North Korea. The USSR could veto these UN Security Council resolutions, but a Soviet representative was absent from its meetings since January 1950 in protest against the fact that the PRC’s place in the organization was occupied by a representative of the Kuomintang regime of Chiang Kai-shek. This circumstance can be considered as a diplomatic miscalculation of the Soviet side. Pyongyang hoped to carry out its operation to achieve control over the territory of South Korea quickly and before the Americans were able to intervene in events on the Korean Peninsula. In this context, delaying the decision-making process in the UN Security Council in connection with the situation in Korea could contribute to the military success of the DPRK.
The periodization of combat operations in the Korean War includes four stages: the first (June 25 - September 14, 1950), consisting of the KPA crossing the 38th parallel and developing the offensive to the river. Naktong with blocking enemy troops on a bridgehead in the Busan area; the second (September 15 - October 24, 1950), containing the counter-offensive of the UN multinational forces and their entry directly into the southern regions of the DPRK; the third (October 25, 1950 - July 9, 1951), characterized by the entry of the Chinese People's Volunteers into the war, which led to the withdrawal of UN troops from North Korea and the stabilization of the battle line on the peninsula in areas adjacent to the 38th parallel; the fourth (July 10, 1951 - July 27, 1953), which included both military operations and armistice negotiations.
The first stage of the Korean War was marked by the successes of the troops of the Korean People's Army. Its troops broke enemy resistance in the Seoul direction and dynamically continued their offensive to the south. By mid-August, up to 90% of South Korea was controlled by the northerners. An important role in the development of KPA operations was played by Soviet military advisers led by Lieutenant General N.A. Vasilyev. Their number throughout the war ranged from 120 to 160 people, but they did not take part in hostilities, concentrating their efforts on assisting in the development, preparation and conduct of operations, training and organization of units and individual services of the North Korean army. From November 1950 until the end of the war, the apparatus of Soviet military advisers in the DPRK was headed by Lieutenant General V.N. Razuvaev, being at the same time the USSR ambassador to it.
However, by September 1950, North Korean troops gradually lost the initiative in the conduct of hostilities and practically stopped along the perimeter of the Busan bridgehead, unable to overcome the resistance of American and South Korean troops. By the end of the first stage of the war, the KPA was largely weakened by the harsh and constant impact of US Air Force aviation. Transport communications were seriously disrupted, which led to the loss of maneuverability and uninterrupted logistics support for combat operations by the Korean People's Army troops.
In general, the course of the war began to be negatively affected by the calculation of the DPRK leadership that the war would be short-term and would not require significant human and material resources. Moreover, in the context of direct US military intervention in events on the Korean Peninsula, the complete superiority of the Americans in the air and at sea began to play a dominant role.
Meanwhile, a group of American and South Korean troops, operating under the UN flag and under the general leadership of General D. MacArthur, was preparing for a counteroffensive. The plan of the operation was to launch two coordinated attacks on North Korean troops. One - directly from the Busan bridgehead, for which purpose the group of multinational UN forces was secretly strengthened there. The second blow was planned to be delivered to the rear of the KPA troops by amphibious assault forces in the area of the port of Incheon. Unfortunately, the possibility of an enemy landing in the area of the port of Incheon was not discovered in a timely manner.
The second stage of the Korean War began on September 15 with an enemy amphibious landing near the port of Incheon. The landing force included the 10th American Corps (1st Marine Division, 7th Infantry Division, British commando detachment and units of South Korean troops) with a total number of more than 50 thousand people. The landing was provided by the 7th Fleet of the Navy and the US Air Force with the participation of allies (about 200 ships and more than 400 aircraft). Even more significant enemy forces and assets were concentrated on the Busan bridgehead, where, as in the Inchon area, by the beginning of the counteroffensive the balance of forces and assets at the front was in favor of the UN MNF.
The superiority of the UN forces against the backdrop of fatigue and losses suffered by the Korean People's Army ensured the first success. They broke through the KPA defense line and managed to take the capital of the DPRK, Pyongyang, on October 23, soon reaching the closest approaches to the borders of the PRC and the USSR. In general, the military results of September-October 1950 put an end to Kim Il Sung’s plans to unify the country, and the issue of providing urgent assistance to North Korea to exclude a possible victory of the forces of the southern coalition became acute on the agenda. In this situation, I.V. Stalin and Mao Zedong quickly reached an agreement on the entry of troops of the People's Liberation Army of China (PLA) into the war on the peninsula under the guise of Chinese people's volunteers and the involvement of Soviet aviation and funds air defense(air defense) for air cover of the combat zone within the DPRK, as well as the northeastern part of the territory of the PRC.
 Marshal of the People's Republic of China (since 1955) Peng Dehuai |
The third stage of the war was marked by the entry into hostilities of Chinese people's volunteers under the command of Colonel General Peng Dehuai on the side of the KPA, which came as a surprise to the command of the southern coalition. The Chinese group included three echelons with a total number of more than 600 thousand people. To reduce the level of American air superiority in the air, night time was used for troop movements. The actions of the northern coalition acquired a fast and maneuverable character, which led to the rapid retreat of UN forces - on December 5, Pyongyang was liberated by the North’s troops, and Seoul was liberated on January 4 of the following year. All Syngman Rhee's hopes for victory over the DPRK and the unification of the country under his leadership were dispelled. Further, the course of hostilities on the opposing sides resembled the movement of a pendulum with a gradually decreasing amplitude. At the beginning of July 1951, the front line almost stopped in the areas adjacent to the 38th parallel. |
Soviet pilots and air defense soldiers made their contribution to stabilizing the situation on the peninsula. The results of their military operations deserve high praise. It is no coincidence that 22 pilots were awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union. In total, 1,259 enemy aircraft were destroyed by the forces and means of 64 Air Forces, of which 1,106 aircraft were destroyed by aviation, 153 aircraft were destroyed by anti-aircraft units. One of the interesting episodes of the Korean War was the hunt for “live” fighters.
By the beginning of the war in service air force The USSR and the USA had 1st generation jet fighters - technical solutions different for each side, however, quite comparable in flight characteristics. Soviet fighter The MiG-15 had better weapons and a lower take-off weight compared to the American F-86 Saber aircraft, which had greater speed and whose pilots were equipped with anti-g suits. Both sides showed practical interest in obtaining and studying a “living”, undestroyed enemy vehicle for flight testing.
MiG-15 aircraft of the USSR Air Force
US Air Force F-86 aircraft
In April 1951, a group of Soviet pilots arrived in Manchuria with the task of capturing an American F-86 aircraft. But it turned out that it was technically difficult to force a serviceable aircraft of this type to land due to its speed advantage over the MiG-15. As often happens in life, chance came to the rescue. In October 1951, Colonel E.G. Pepelyaev, one of the best pilots of the Korean War, damaged a Saber in battle, the pilot of which was unable to eject and made an emergency landing, which made it possible to obtain the aircraft in virtually working order and deliver it to Moscow for detailed study. In May 1952, the second F-86 aircraft was received, shot down by anti-aircraft artillery fire.
Colonel Evgeniy Georgievich
Pepelyaev
Throughout the Korean War, there remained a direct threat of the United States using nuclear weapons. It was largely determined by the position of the commander-in-chief of American troops in the Far East, General D. MacArthur. He took a hard line in the war, insisting on expanding military operations into Chinese territory and using nuclear weapons.
The issue of the possible use of nuclear weapons was considered by the US administration in the context of the defeat of the UN MNF after the Chinese people's volunteers entered hostilities in Korea. At the end of November 1950, US President G. Truman, speaking to the press, did not rule out a similar course of development of the war on the peninsula.
Washington studied the possibility of using six atomic bombs in order to destroy North Korean and Chinese troops in the area of Pyeongsan, Chorwon, Kimhwa and, later, eight more atomic bombs against Chinese troops in the Chonju area and north of the Imjingan River.
However, the idea of using nuclear weapons in the Korean War raised concerns among Great Britain and other European allies of the United States. British Prime Minister C. Attlee in early December 1950, during a visit to the US capital, spoke out against a nuclear solution to the situation on the Korean Peninsula, which was plunging Europe into a global conflict.
The limitations of the US nuclear arsenal and the opinion of coalition allies who feared the outbreak of a world war nuclear war, influenced the change in the position of the leadership of the United States of America on the possibility of using nuclear weapons on the Korean Peninsula. D. MacArthur's hawkish position came into conflict with the approach of the US administration, which led to his dismissal from his post and replacement by General M. Ridgway.
The deadlock that arose in the spring of 1951 forced the US National Security Council, in its NSC-48 directive, to formulate the minimum goals for resolving the situation in Korea: a ceasefire, the establishment of a demilitarized zone, and a refusal to introduce new forces into the battle area.
At the same time, the diplomatic activity of the United States and the USSR to resolve the Korean issue intensified. In May and June 1951, at the initiative of Washington, informal meetings were held between the famous American diplomat D. Kennan and the Soviet representative to the UN Ya.A. Malik. They discussed the possibility of organizing a negotiation process on Korea. The Soviet side also held a meeting on this issue in Moscow with the participation of I.V. Stalin, Kim Il Sung and member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China Gao Gang, at which the idea of holding such negotiations found support.
On June 23, the Soviet representative to the UN Ya.A. Malik spoke on American radio with a proposal to hold, as a first step, an exchange of views between the countries fighting on the peninsula regarding a ceasefire and truce on the terms of the withdrawal of troops from the 38th parallel. Six days later, General M. Ridgway radioed to the command of the North Korean troops and Chinese people's volunteers with a proposal to hold a meeting to discuss the possibility of a truce, to which a positive response was received three days later.
The thorough work of diplomats on both sides ensured the possibility of holding negotiations taking into account all factors of the military-political situation on the Korean Peninsula and in the countries involved in the military conflict. In the United States, the negative public perception of the Korean War was manifested in a drop in the ratings of the Truman administration on the eve of the presidential elections. IN Western Europe feared that the United States would get bogged down on the Korean Peninsula to the detriment of its security. I.V. Stalin, in turn, saw positive aspects in such developments. The DPRK and the PRC, suffering heavy human and material losses, showed interest in the negotiation process, striving for a return to the pre-war situation. South Korea's position remained intransigent and consisted of waging war to a victorious end.
On July 10, 1951, negotiations began in the city of Kaesong, controlled by North Korean troops. They represented only the parties that took part in direct military operations throughout the peninsula: the Americans, Koreans and Chinese. The Soviet Union refrained from participating in the negotiations, emphasizing that it was not a party to the military conflict.
Negotiations characterized the fourth and final stage of the Korean War, during which both sides continued to conduct military operations on the land front, supplemented by the Americans with the massive use of aircraft.
Fighting Both sides were harsh in nature, primarily in relation to civilians and prisoners of war. Thus, American troops shot any person approaching their positions, US Air Force attack aircraft bombarded roads with refugees, etc. The massive use of napalm by the US Air Force during the so-called carpet bombings caused many casualties among the civilian population, the destruction of many cultural values, and the industrial potential of the country, including irrigation and energy facilities.
Overall, the war was marked by serious violations of norms international law, which the artist Pablo Picasso managed to attract attention to when he painted “Massacre in Korea” in 1951. In South Korea, the showing of his painting was banned until the early 1990s. because of its anti-American orientation.
Meanwhile, at the negotiations in Kaesong a necessary condition To stop hostilities on the peninsula, it was decided to establish a demarcation line and a demilitarized zone. Due to differences in the positions of the parties, negotiations were difficult and repeatedly broke down. Only by the end of November the parties reached an agreement on demarcation along the front line.
Disagreements between the parties also emerged when discussing the problem of the exchange of prisoners of war. Due to the fact that the number of Chinese and Koreans captured by the UN multinational forces was 15 times higher than the number of prisoners in the hands of the North Koreans, the situation did not allow the “one-for-one” principle put forward by the Americans to be applied during their exchange.
The progress of the negotiations was accompanied by the activity of the parties at the front, especially the UN MNF. The troops of the northern coalition occupied a passive defense, without neglecting the opportunity to improve the front line for themselves. As a result, by the end of 1952, the negotiations reached a dead end due to the impossibility of reaching a compromise between their participants on certain problems. At the same time, they gradually realized the futility of continuing hostilities, which were grinding down human and material resources.
Korean War 1950-1953 Combat operations from October 25, 1950 to July 27, 1953
A real and positive shift in the negotiations occurred after the election of US President D. Eisenhower, who took up his duties in January 1953, and the death of I.V. in March of the same year. Stalin. One way or another, following these events in April 1953, an exchange of prisoners of war began between the parties, initially the wounded and sick. While not a direct participant in the negotiations, the USSR closely monitored their progress and coordinated the actions of China and the DPRK, used various diplomatic channels to find acceptable solutions in working with states whose troops were part of the UN multinational force, and formed a positive attitude towards the negotiations at its General Assembly for a ceasefire and truce in Korea.
On July 27, 1953, the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed in Panmunjong near Kaesong. It was signed by Nam Il (North Korea) and W. Harrison (USA), as well as Kim Il Sung, Peng Dehuai, and M. Clark (commander of US troops in Korea at the time of signing), who were not present at the ceremony. The South Korean representative's signature was missing. The front line remained in the area of the 38th parallel and was formed as the basis of a demarcation line with the creation of a demilitarized zone around it. The fighting has stopped, but complete peace remained unachieved, as did the formation of a unified Korean state.
The Korean War involved forces on both sides, numbering up to approximately 1.1 million people each. The number of losses during the war has not yet been calculated and there are different versions of their estimates. According to one of the available versions, the losses of the DPRK and South Korea amounted to about 1 million people for each of them, including losses among civilians. US losses are estimated at approximately 140 thousand people, while allied losses are estimated at 15 thousand people. According to available official Chinese data, for the Chinese people's volunteers the number of losses is determined at 390 thousand people. The Soviet Union suffered 315 casualties.
Soviet military intelligence showed itself positively in the Korean War, managing to provide the military-political leadership of the USSR with information about the armed forces of the Korean states, the grouping of US armed forces in Japan, the composition and armament of the military contingents of Washington's allies in the UN coalition. The role of intelligence in obtaining samples of American military equipment and weapons is significant.
Korean War 1950-1953 did not bring laurels of victory to either the DPRK or South Korea. The armistice agreement of July 27, 1953 did not solve the problem of creating a unified Korean state. Moreover, the Korean Peninsula has become a source of instability in the North East Asia, and with the emergence of a nuclear arsenal in Pyongyang, a threat of a global nature arises. The Korean War also led to the consolidation of the US military presence in the region and the creation, under their auspices, of the military-political blocs ANZUS in 1951 and SEATO in 1954 in the Asia-Pacific region.
The consequences of the war should also include the expansion of the NATO alliance through the entry of Turkey and Greece, and later Germany. At the same time, serious changes took place in the bloc due to the formation of the United Armed Forces under a single command. A new situation had emerged in the world, which consisted of a confrontation between two great powers (the USSR and the USA), which excluded a direct military clash, but considered limited armed conflicts with their indirect participation acceptable. In this regard, the Korean War became a kind of testing ground for testing a model of such coexistence.
Another consequence of the war was the development of the Republic of Korea and the DPRK in opposite directions. The first made a powerful breakthrough in the economy within the framework of strong relations with the United States and Japan, including in the military field. The second established relations with the USSR and China on the basis of bilateral treaties of friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance. As a result, a system of maintaining the status quo on the peninsula was formed. But with the collapse of the USSR and the transition of the PRC, and Russia, to a more pragmatic foreign policy course, the geopolitical situation for the DPRK changed significantly. First of all, the level of economic assistance and military support for Pyongyang from Moscow and Beijing has decreased. North Korea has taken the path of creating own funds ensuring their existence, including the development of nuclear weapons. Which was perhaps the most important lesson from the consequences of the Korean War.
There are other lessons from the Korean War that policymakers should take into account when making decisions about the use of military force. The world is becoming increasingly interconnected, and in this regard, it is necessary to approach the analysis of a specific situation from the standpoint of ensuring integrated approach to study all possible factors and consequences of its development. Thus, in the case of Korea, the Soviet leadership did not see the obvious fact that the US administration, in the context of the flaring up Cold War, was keenly aware of attempts to limit the zone of their influence and was ready to resort to the use of military force in such cases. An assessment of the support of the population of the southern part of Korea for Kim Il Sung’s intentions to unify the country also required a sober and non-ideologized view.
In turn, it is time for the US ruling elite to realize that the widespread use of force (in Korea, Vietnam, Iraq, Afghanistan, etc.) does not lead to stability in the world. Moreover, it is clear how the “Arab Spring” is leading to increased confrontation between Arabs, and how events in Syria are leading to the strengthening of extremist organizations.
Returning to the Korean War, it should be noted that the contradictions between the two states of the peninsula at any moment can be a detonator new war covering everything Far East and even wider. In light of the real danger of this, the task of eliminating the military option by involving interested countries in a dialogue to relieve inter-Korean tension on the entire range of existing problems is urgent.
Retired Lieutenant General Alexander Alekseev
New “centers of power” established themselves on the planet, various forms of their interactions began to take shape, and often this led to an increase in contradictions, their aggravation to the extreme. conflict situations. One of the most striking examples of this kind is the causes, course and results of the Korean War, which lasted from 1950 to 1953.
Outwardly, this conflict looked like a local armed clash between two state associations that had formed in the northern and southern parts of the Korean Peninsula. But in essence, this became a manifestation of an open confrontation between two blocs that had already formed by that time: the eastern one, led by the Soviet Union, and the western one, under the auspices of the United States.
Historical background of the conflict
The war between North and South Korea was not based on any pronounced interethnic or territorial conflicts. This is evidenced by the entire previous centuries-old history of the country and nation, in which there were no noticeable manifestations of a clan, economic or cultural nature that could lead to the division of the Korean state into “north” and “south”.
Korea before World War II
Since ancient times, Korea has been a closed, but internally monolithic and original civilization. At the same time, it did not have the conditions for its own external expansion, but, on the contrary, quite often fell into a more or less severe degree of dependence on its powerful neighbors: the Manchus, China, Japan.
Since the end of the 19th century, the Korean Peninsula began to gradually be drawn into the sphere of influence of other major powers in the world. Japan tried to prevent this, having taken the path of modernization earlier than other East Asian countries and considering Korea essentially as its own colony, a source of raw materials and cheap labor. Control of Korea became one of the highest priority goals foreign policy Japan, to achieve which it twice resorted to wars: with China in 1894-1895. and Russia in 1904-1905.
Japanese domination of Korea since 1910 took the form of outright annexation of the territory and was accompanied by the suppression of the traditional culture of the Korean people, including language, beliefs and customs. This situation led to increased resistance in various sectors of Korean society, primarily peasants and the urban poor.
With the outbreak of World War II, Japan only intensified the process of pumping material and human resources out of Korea. And although the Korean Peninsula was practically unaffected by hostilities throughout the war, the situation here was tense to the limit. The only thing that kept the Koreans from a national uprising was the increased Japanese military presence.
Division of the country after 1945
Japan's surrender in World War II resulted in Japan relinquishing control of all previously captured territories, including Korea. In this regard, even before the Allied victory, an agreement was reached on occupation zones on the Korean Peninsula. A border was established between Soviet and American troops, running along the geographic 38th parallel north. The territory to the north of it became part of the Soviet zone of occupation, and to the south - to the American zone.
Both superpowers declared the future unification of the country, but each of them began to promote its protégé to the post of potential Korean leader. Under the general leadership of each occupation military administration, local authorities were formed that regulated the way of life on their territory with a pronounced “socialist” or “capitalist” bias.
Already in 1946, provisional governments were formed in both parts of Korea, claiming dominance over the entire territory of the country. In North Korea, a similar government was headed by Kim Il Sung, who gained fame as the leader of the guerrilla movement during the Japanese occupation and since then has been actively supported by the leadership of the USSR. In South Korea, the former Korean “government in exile” was formally supported, uniting pro-Western politicians, among whom the US leadership placed its main bet on Syngman Rhee.
Attempts by the Soviet-American commission to find a mutually acceptable solution on the formation of bodies state power Korea was unsuccessful in the context of the flaring Cold War. However, Washington approved the holding of elections on May 10, 1948, held only in the southern part of the country, and officially recognized the legitimacy of the Republic of Korea, formed on August 15, led by Syngman Rhee. In the north of the country, on September 9 of the same year, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) was proclaimed, headed by Kim Il Sung.
After the proclamation of the Republic of Korea and the DPRK, the occupation forces left the Korean Peninsula. Soviet units did this until the end of 1948, American units - in 1949.
Parties to the conflict
At the end of the 1940s, North Korea was noticeably ahead of South Korea in terms of industrial development, but had half the population. The land reform carried out here with the further introduction of collective labor, the assistance of the USSR in continuing industrialization, made it possible to achieve high rates of economic growth and the standard of living of its citizens.
In addition, the DPRK was able to create quite serious armed forces, forming 10 infantry divisions with a total number of about 180 thousand military personnel. North Korea was armed with Soviet equipment: 242 T-34 tanks, 176 SU-76 self-propelled guns, 210 combat aircraft (Yak-9, Il-10, Il-2). The South Korean army was almost twice as large as the northerners. Of the military equipment, it had only 27 armored vehicles and 22 aircraft. Only in terms of the number of naval units the sides were approximately equal.
Syngman Rhee's rule in South Korea was extremely unpopular and soon turned into a dictatorship. The number of centers of armed resistance was growing in the country, one of the most significant among them was the uprising of the 14th regiment in the city of Yeosu in October 1948, which was suppressed with the help of US troops. At the same time, South Korean military units and police units monthly made dozens of attempts at armed incursions into the territory of the DPRK.
Reasons for the start of the war
In the face of constant provocations and skirmishes on the border between the two Korean states, the situation quickly became tense. The transformation of this confrontation into a large-scale war occurred for several reasons:
- The desire of each of the authoritarian leaders of the two Koreas (Kim Il Sung and Syngman Rhee) to unite the peninsula under their rule;
- The desire of the world superpowers to take the strategically important Korean Peninsula under their full control in the unfolding global confrontation;
- The influence of the situation in neighboring China, where the civil war ended with the victory of pro-communist forces oriented toward the USSR. But the leadership of the PRC began to pursue its own policy of interference in affairs neighboring countries South-East Asia, including Korea.
An essential basis for the military path to the unification of Korea was the provision of the Constitution of the DPRK, which proclaimed South Korean Seoul as the capital of the country. This allowed the North Korean authorities to ideologically justify military actions as a “liberation campaign.”
Chronology of events
By mid-1950, the Soviet leadership, initially not interested in a possible direct military clash with the United States, changed its position. This was facilitated, on the one hand, by the statement of US Secretary of State Dean Acheson, who excluded Korea from the list of regions of “vital interests of America”, and on the other hand, by the persistent persuasion of Kim Il Sung, who achieved approval following a personal meeting with J.V. Stalin military operation for the unification of Korea.
Beginning of the war (25 June – 20 August 1950)
There was no need to look for special reasons for the start of full-scale military operations. Since June 23, 1950, the South Korean army carried out another attempt to invade the territory of North Korea with the forces of the 1st Infantry Corps, going 1-2 kilometers deep into enemy territory. The DPRK army launched an invasion of South Korean territory on the morning of June 25 with a powerful simultaneous attack by all main forces.
Possessing superiority in heavy military equipment, the Korean People's Army (KPA) quickly defeated South Korean troops in border battles and rushed inland. Already on June 28, the capital of the Republic of Korea, the city of Seoul, was taken, but the KPA failed to encircle a large group of South Korean troops in this area.
In addition, since June 27, the United States, taking advantage of the boycott by Soviet representatives of the work of the United Nations (UN), was able to achieve a decision on military intervention in the Korean conflict under the flag of this international organization. To help the South Korean army, the transfer of troops began to the peninsula, and large naval forces were drawn to the Korean coast.
In July-August 1950, North Korean troops managed to take control of 90% of the country's territory. South Korean and American troops suffered heavy losses, but were able to gain a foothold on a small bridgehead centered in Busan, which relied on natural lines convenient for defense, reinforced by a system of strong points.
The turning point in the war and the US landing (August - October 1950)
On August 21, after a relatively small regrouping, the KPA began attacks on the Pusan bridgehead. The North Korean formations, having already lost 30-50% of their strength, 40% of their artillery and more than half their tanks, were able to achieve only minor advances. Particularly fierce fighting took place around the city of Changne, which changed hands several times.
At the same time, the troops opposing the KPA under the UN flag had absolute superiority in aviation, which flew up to 1,500 sorties per day. From August until mid-September, fresh units of American troops, reinforced with heavy military equipment, were actively transferred to the Busan bridgehead. This quickly changed the balance of power.
On September 15, US troops landed troops from two divisions, reinforced by British and South Korean units, in the area of the city of Incheon, located west of Seoul. At the same time, the troops on the Pusan bridgehead (5 South Korean, 5 American divisions, one British brigade) went on the offensive, with additional reinforcements of approximately 500 tanks and over 1,100 aircraft.
The military forces of the DPRK, concentrated around the Busan bridgehead, suffered one defeat after another during heavy defensive battles. After the unification of the “Southern Coalition” groups advancing from the Busan and Incheon bridgeheads on September 27, the 1st KPA Army Group was surrounded and defeated.
On September 28, “UN troops” occupied Seoul and continued their ground offensive. The hastily created defensive lines on the territory of the DPRK could not stop the further advance of the “Southern Coalition” troops, during which on October 8 they crossed the 38th parallel, and on October 20 Pyongyang was captured with the help of an airborne assault.
China's entry into the war (October 1950 – May 1951)
For the leadership of the established People's Republic of China only a year earlier, the complete defeat of the DPRK posed a serious threat. It meant the formation of a hostile territory on the immediate borders of the PRC with a large contingent of American troops.
China has repeatedly stated that it would enter the Korean War if any foreign forces crossed the 38th parallel line. The US leadership did not perceive this as real threat. However, on October 25, a 270,000-strong group of Chinese “volunteer” troops successfully attacked “UN troops”, but were soon forced to retreat to the mountainous regions of northern Korea.
During the same period, the USSR sent an air corps of more than 300 aircraft to the border of China and Korea, limiting their use with an order to operate at a distance of 100 kilometers from the front line. Soviet MiG-15s showed complete superiority over American F-80 fighters, and only the subsequent use of newer F-86 aircraft by the US Air Force to some extent equalized the outcome of the confrontation in Korean airspace.
At the end of November 1950, Chinese troops launched a new offensive, blocking a group of UN forces off the sea coast in the Hungnam area. Soon the troops of the “southern coalition” left Seoul and only by the end of January 1951 were able to gain a foothold on the Pyeongtaek-Samcheok line. The "UN troops" then launched a counter-offensive that brought Seoul back under their control by mid-March.
In mid-May, another offensive by the “Northern Coalition” troops followed, stopping at the distant approaches to Seoul. The counter-offensive of the “southerners” forced the enemy to retreat, once again returning the confrontation to the line of the 38th parallel.
The final stage and trench warfare
Beginning in June 1951, it became obvious to both sides of the conflict that it was impossible to achieve complete victory in the war in the near future. Both the “northern” and “southern” coalitions had approximately equal groups (about a million soldiers each), densely located on a narrow section of the Korean Peninsula. There were no longer any opportunities for a quick breakthrough and maneuver.
In July 1951, negotiations began in the Korean city of Kaesong for a peaceful settlement of the conflict. Despite the agreement to restore the pre-war border between North and South Korea, differences in political formulations did not allow agreements to be reached. The warring parties moved to trench warfare, which was periodically interrupted by bloody but ineffective offensives.
The final end to the war became possible only after significant changes in the top leadership of the USA and the USSR. At the beginning of 1953, US President Dwight Eisenhower took office, advocating a speedy end to the Korean War. And after Stalin’s death, the new leadership of the Soviet Union also decided to end this conflict and, for this purpose, began to put appropriate pressure on the Chinese leadership.
On July 27, 1953, a ceasefire agreement was signed in Kaesong. This document provided for an almost complete return to the previous border along the 38th parallel. In addition, a demilitarized zone was created between the DPRK and the Republic of Korea.
Losses and consequences
The Korean War of 1950-1953 turned out to be very bloody. Military losses of the “southern coalition” amounted to about 775 thousand people, of the “northern coalition - almost one million military personnel.
| The main countries whose military personnel participated in hostilities | Total number of losses | Killed, died from wounds and diseases | Wounded | Captured, missing |
| The Republic of Korea | 616 thousand | 137 875 | 450 thousand | 28 thousand |
| USA | 149 233 | 33 686 | 103 284 | 12 263 |
| British Commonwealth | 10 403 | 2 188 | 7 166 | 1 049 |
| DPRK | 620 thousand | 215 thousand | 300 thousand | 100 000 |
| China | 390 thousand | 148.7 thousand | 216 thousand | 25 621 |
| USSR | 464 | 299 | 165 | 0 |
Civilian casualties are based only on rough estimates, which range from 500 thousand to a million dead for each part of the country. Hundreds of thousands of residents of the Korean Peninsula were forced to leave their former places of residence as a result of hostilities. About 80% of the country's production infrastructure was damaged or completely destroyed. A number of cities, especially in northern Korea, were destroyed by bombing and shelling. In particular, Pyongyang was almost completely in ruins.
It should be noted that the 1953 ceasefire agreement was signed with the DPRK only by the command of the “UN troops”. The Syngman Rhee regime refused to allow any agreements with North Korea. The conference held in 1954 to develop a peace treaty with the participation of the USSR and the USA ended without results. Thus, legally, the Korean War continues to this day.
The hostility between the two Korean states has remained constant until the present day. In the mid-1960s, the governments of North and South Korea were able to conclude a treaty of cooperation and non-aggression. But by the end of the 1990s, North Korea broke this agreement for reasons that can briefly be associated with the imposition of sanctions due to its own nuclear missile development.
In the 21st century military confrontation on the Korean Peninsula intensified, periodically escalating to a crisis level. During the split, the countries of North and South Korea diverged quite far both in economic structure and in social identity. The majority of North Koreans are firmly convinced that the southerners are traitors who have “sold out” to the United States and “world capital.” South Koreans largely perceive northerners as “poor savages who have no place in modern society" But for now both parts of Korea retain mutual language, history, cultural traditions, the chance for reconciliation remains.
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Between the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) and the Republic of Korea (South Korea).
The war was fought with the participation of the Chinese military contingent and military specialists and units of the USSR Air Force on the side of the DPRK, and on the side of South Korea - the US armed forces and a number of states as part of the UN multinational forces.
The preconditions for the Korean War were laid in the summer of 1945, when Soviet and American troops appeared on the territory of the country, at that time completely occupied by Japan. The peninsula was divided into two parts along the 38th parallel.
After the formation of two Korean states in 1948 and the departure of first Soviet and then American troops from the peninsula, both Korean sides and their main allies, the USSR and the USA, were preparing for conflict. The governments of the North and South intended to unite Korea under their own rule, which they proclaimed in the Constitutions adopted in 1948.
In 1948, the United States and the Republic of Korea signed an agreement to create the South Korean army. In 1950, a defense agreement was concluded between these countries.
In North Korea, with the help of the Soviet Union, the Korean People's Army was created. After the withdrawal of troops Soviet army from the DPRK in September 1948, all weapons and military equipment were left to the DPRK. The Americans withdrew their troops from South Korea only in the summer of 1949, but left about 500 advisers there; military advisers to the USSR remained in the DPRK.
The mutual non-recognition of the two Korean states by each other and their incomplete recognition on the world stage made the situation on the Korean Peninsula extremely unstable.
Armed clashes along the 38th parallel occurred with varying degrees of intensity until June 25, 1950. They happened especially often in 1949 - the first half of 1950, numbering in the hundreds. Sometimes these skirmishes involved more than a thousand people on each side.
In 1949, the head of the DPRK, Kim Il Sung, turned to the USSR with a request for help in invading South Korea. However, considering the North Korean army to be insufficiently prepared and fearing a conflict with the United States, Moscow did not grant this request.
Despite the start of negotiations, hostilities continued. A large-scale air war broke out in the air, in which the US Air Force and Navy played the main role on the South side, and the Soviet 64th Fighter Air Corps on the North side.
By the spring of 1953, it became obvious that the price of victory for either side would be too high, and, after Stalin's death, the Soviet party leadership decided to end the war. China and North Korea did not dare to continue the war on their own. Opening of a memorial cemetery in memory of those killed in the Korean WarIn the capital of the DPRK, as part of the celebration of the anniversary of the end Patriotic War 1950-1953 a memorial cemetery was opened in memory of the victims. The ceremony was attended by the country's top party and military officials. The truce between the DPRK, China and the UN was documented on July 27, 1953.
The human losses of the parties to an armed conflict are assessed differently. The total losses of the South in killed and wounded are estimated in the range from 1 million 271 thousand to 1 million 818 thousand people, of the North - from 1 million 858 thousand to 3 million 822 thousand people.
According to official American data, the United States lost 54,246 people killed and 103,284 people wounded in the Korean War.
The USSR lost a total of 315 people in Korea killed and died from wounds and diseases, including 168 officers. Over the course of 2.5 years of participation in hostilities, the 64th Air Corps lost 335 MiG-15 fighters and over 100 pilots, having shot down over a thousand enemy aircraft.
The total losses of the air forces of the parties amounted to more than three thousand aircraft of the UN forces and about 900 aircraft of the air forces of the People's Republic of China, the DPRK and the USSR.
The material was prepared based on information from RIA Novosti and open sources
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