What type of natural or formal languages? Natural and artificial languages. Forms of language. Natural language features
Historically, the formation of language took place in various forms, different languages created various groups, cultural characteristics of different structural components languages have been preserved to this day.
All languages are usually divided into 2 large groups: natural and artificial languages.
Natural languages arose in the conditions of human development in various natural-geographical and socio-historical conditions. Being one of the main ethnic characteristics (common territory of residence, language, culture, mentality), natural language became a means of integration of people in the first stages of the formation of human society. With complication social life and the settlement of people across vast areas of the globe, linguistic differences arose, which led to the formation of many national languages. Currently, there are about 5,000 languages on the globe, spoken by residents of just over 200 countries.
Historical features of the formation of natural languages have led to the fact that the same language
consider the peoples living in different countries and even on different continents, for example, the British, Americans and Australians. Russian is the native language for many people born during Soviet Union in national republics. Their number includes Belarusians, Ukrainians, and representatives of various ethnic groups of vast Russia, etc.
Natural languages have different forms. The main ones are:
1 dialects, including social dialects,
2 professional speech,
3 vernacular,
4 literary language.
Dialect is a language consisting of local names of objects and phenomena of everyday life, verbal designations of everyday actions, simple concepts known to every person from birth. Different ethnic groups, and even people belonging to the same ethnic and national entity can speak different dialects. In addition to differences in conceptual structure, dialects are often built on different phonetic bases (the same letters and syllables are pronounced differently). Each locality may have its own dialect.
Dialects are not part of the literary national language, since they are not used everywhere, but only in certain territory. Under the influence of changing living conditions and the spread of linguistic literacy cultivated by the media, dialect words are gradually falling out of use. Some are replaced by the words of the literary language, others are forgotten as the phenomena and objects denoted by them disappear from everyday life.
Social dialects- this is the language of various social groups, which, for various reasons, in certain socio-historical conditions, can act as the creators and bearers of a separate subculture. This subculture can take shape in various language forms. The main difference between social dialects and other forms of language is either the use of special words to denote phenomena known only to that social group, for example, the language of criminals, thieves “Fenya”; or in changing the meaning of ordinary words, for example, “laces” - parents in youth slang; in the use of ordinary words in a modified context, for example, in the language of the aristocracy “dinner party, dinner”, etc. are interpreted not as an invitation to a meal, but with the word “specific” (person, man, guy), new Russians (like new Belarusians) call a person who corresponds to their image of a business and successful person.
A type of social dialect is professional language. Its main difference from natural language is that it is the language of a separate socio-professional group, the specialized activities of which are associated with the need to use special terms to designate specific phenomena and objects included in this professional activity.
Depending on the linguistic conditions in which a specific professional activity, terminology may develop, which in this case is borrowed. Thus, in the Russian language of sociologists, geneticists, cyberneticists and generally those associated with computer science, there are a lot of foreign language terms, mostly in English, because in the former Soviet Union these sciences were banned for a long time. And classical medicine traditionally operates with terminology in Latin, an already dead language.
Professional language is a means of livelihood professional culture. And if it is sometimes deliberately complicated in order to distance professionals from the “uninitiated,” then this may be evidence of a not very high level of professional culture. In the modern “knowledge society”, development is carried out not only by increasing the educational, “knowledge” level of all members of civil society, but also by bringing the scientific professional knowledge base closer to every active member of society, which is also achieved through openness professional knowledge in their linguistic design.
Vernacular- this is a special form of natural language, which is characteristic of people who do not know the norms of the literary language. Vernacular speech differs from both the literary language and the dialect. It has a number of typical features in the field of vocabulary, morphology, phonetics, and syntax. For example: words such as “always”, “from there”, “opposite”, “theirs”, etc. are forms of vernacular. Their use in everyday speech is sometimes ironic, sometimes used in literature to express the sociocultural characteristics of a character, sometimes they are used by politicians to get closer to their electorate, who speak the vernacular. However, in general, vernacular is the language of people who are not entirely familiar with the standard language, for various reasons. Nowadays, vernacular language is actively being replaced by literary language. However, some of its features are very tenacious.
Unlike dialects, which are characterized by territorial fixation, vernacular speech is extraterritorial. It does not have its own strictly defined norms, which is why it differs from both the literary language and dialects.
Literary language- the language of official business documents, education, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture expressed in verbal form. The study of a literary language is closely related to the study of literature, the history of language, and the cultural history of the people. It is one of the most effective tools of enlightenment, touching upon the objectives of education.
The main feature of the national literary language is its normativity. Language norm - This is a central concept in defining the national literary language in both its written and spoken form, it means the way it is customary to speak and write in a given society in a given era. Language norms are formed objectively in the process of centuries-old language practice of cultural people. Norms are historically fluid, but they change slowly. If there were no norms, the literary language could not exist. Literary speech would be mixed with streams of dialect speech and vernacular, losing its normative functions.
Constructed languages - These are special formalized languages, constructed according to a specific plan for specific purposes, for example, shorthand, Morse code, computer languages.
World (international) languages- the most common languages spoken by representatives different nations outside the territories inhabited by people to whom they are originally native. These are the languages accepted as working languages of the UN and other international organizations. Today these include: English, French, Spanish, Russian, Chinese. The leading place belongs to English language, native to 350 million people, which is studied in almost all countries of the world.
There are auxiliary international languages, for example Esperanto - artificial language, created in 1887 with the goal of simplifying communication among people who speak different languages. Esperanto got its name from the pseudonym of its creator: Esperanto means “hopeful.”
Question 11. An information model that has a tabular structure is:
Answer 2. flight schedule;
Answer 3. family tree families;
Answer 4. functional diagram of a computer.
Question 12. An information model that has a network structure is:
Answer 1. computer file system;
Answer 2. family tree;
Answer 3. model computer network Internet;
Answer 4. train schedule.
Question 13. Full-scale modeling is:
Answer 1. creating mathematical formulas that describe the form or behavior of the original object;
Answer 2. modeling, in which a separate feature of the original object is recognized in the model;
Answer 3. a set of data containing text information about the original object;
Answer 4. modeling, in which the model has a visual similarity to the original object
Question 14. The following cannot be considered an information model of an object:
Answer 1. description of the original object using mathematical formulas;
Answer 2. description of the original object in natural or formal language;
Answer 3. another object that does not reflect the essential features and properties of the original object;
Answer 4. a set of formulas written in the language of mathematics that describe the behavior of the original object.
Question 15. A mathematical model of an object is:
Answer 1. a set of formulas written in the language of mathematics that reflect the properties of an object;
Answer 2. description in the form of a diagram internal structure the object being studied;
Answer 3. a set of data containing information about quantitative characteristics;
Answer 4. a model created from any material that accurately reflects external signs object.
Question 16. In the “object-model” relationship there are
Answer 1. a country is its capital;
Answer 2. bolt - drawing of a bolt;
Answer 3. chicken - chickens;
Answer 4. spacecraft- the law of universal gravitation.
Question 17. Documents that represent an information model of government management include:
Answer 1. The Constitution of the Russian Federation;
Answer 2. geographical map Russia;
Answer 3. Russian dictionary of political terms;
Answer 4. list of deputies of the State Duma.
Question 18. To information models describing the organization educational process at school can include:
Answer 1. cool magazine;
Answer 2. list of visuals teaching aids;
Answer 3. list of school students;
Answer 4. lesson schedule.
Question 19. Mark the true statement:
Answer 1. direct observation is the storage of information;
Answer 2. The request to information systems is the protection of information;
Answer 3. building a graphical model of a phenomenon is the transfer of information;
Answer 4. Reading reference books is a search for information.
Question 20. Drawings, maps, drawings, diagrams, diagrams, graphs represent:
Answer 1. tabular information models;
Answer 2. mathematical models;
Answer 3. graphical information models;
Answer 4: hierarchical information models
How to determine the information volume of a message represented by symbols of some natural or formal language?
An information message with a volume of 650 bits consists of 130 characters. What is the information weight of each character of this message?
PLEASE HELP ME MAKE A PLAN FOR THIS PARAGRAPH! § 2.2. Information models The original object can be replaced by a set of its properties: names (values)
and meanings. A set of properties containing all the necessary information about the objects and processes under study is called an information model.
In table Figure 2.1 shows an example of an information model of a country house - a card from a catalog, from which a customer of a construction company can select a suitable project. Each card in the catalog contains the names (values) of house properties (on the left) and the values of these properties (on the right).
Table 2.1
Appearance
Length 10 m
Width 8 m
Number of floors 1
Wall material Brick
Wall thickness 0.6 m
Interior wall decoration Board
Roof material Slate
All names of properties in information models are always symbolic elements, because the name can only be expressed by signs. But the values of quantities can carry both symbolic and figurative information. For example, in table. 2.1, the value of the quantity “appearance” is expressed by a figurative element (drawing), and the values of the remaining quantities are expressed using signs (numbers, words, commas).
The figurative element of the information model can be not only a drawing or photograph, but also a three-dimensional layout or video recording. However, it must be possible to connect this element with the characteristics of a specific object. For example, the “Exterior” line in a house catalog may contain a layout code. And in order for the layouts themselves to be elements of the information model, and not decoration, they need to be provided with labels with codes.
Information models represent objects and processes in figurative or symbolic form. According to the method of presentation, the following types of information models are distinguished - Fig. 2.1.
Types of information models
Figurative Mixed Iconic
models models models
Maps Graphs Flowcharts
Figurative models (drawings, photographs, etc.) are visual images of objects recorded on some information medium (paper, photo and film, etc.).
Specialists receive a lot of information from satellite photographs of the Earth’s surface (Fig. 2.2)
Rice. 2.2 Satellite photograph of the territory in the Black Sea region<
Figurative information models are widely used in education (illustrations in textbooks (Fig. 2.3), educational posters in various subjects) and sciences, where classification of objects according to their external features is required (in botany, biology, paleontology, etc.).
Rice. 2.3 Formation of the Roman legion in three lines
Sign information models are built using various languages (sign systems). A signed information model can be presented in the form of a text in natural language or a program in a programming language, a formula (for example, the area of a rectangle S = ab), etc.
Many models combine figurative and iconic elements. In Fig. Figure 2.4 shows an example of a model of the unicellular alga Chlamydomonas. The drawn parts of the seaweed are figurative elements of this model, and the inscriptions below and to the right of the drawing are symbolic elements. Rice. 2.4
Examples of mixed information models include geographic maps, graphs, diagrams, etc. All of these models use both graphic elements and symbolic language at the same time.
i Briefly about the main thing
The original object can be replaced by a set of its properties: their names and values. A set of properties containing all the necessary information about the objects and processes under study is called an information model.
Information models represent objects and processes in figurative or symbolic form. According to the method of presentation, figurative, symbolic and mixed information models are distinguished.
The languages used for human communication are called natural languages. There are several thousand of them. The most popular natural language is Chinese. English is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. Natural languages are characterized by:
Wide scope of application - natural language is known to the entire national community;
The presence of a large number of rules, some of which are formulated explicitly (rules of grammar), others implicitly (rules of meaning and use);
Flexibility - natural language is applicable to describe any, including new, situations;
Openness - natural language allows the speaker to generate new signs (words) that are understandable to the interlocutor, as well as use existing signs with new meanings;
Dynamic - natural language quickly adapts to the diverse needs of interpersonal interaction between people.
In connection with the development of science and technology, formal languages have emerged that are used by specialists in their professional activities. Moreover, many formal languages have international use.
A formal language is a language in which the same combinations of signs always have the same meaning. Formal languages include systems of mathematical and chemical symbols, musical notation, Morse code and many others. The formal language is the universally used decimal number system, which allows you to name and write numbers, as well as perform arithmetic operations on them. Formal languages include the programming languages that we will learn about in computer science classes.
A feature of formal languages is that all the rules in them are specified in explicit form, which ensures the unambiguous recording and perception of messages in these languages.
1 .2.4. Forms of information submission
The same information can be expressed in different ways. A person can present information in symbolic or figurative form (Fig. 1.3).
The presentation of information in one form or another is otherwise called coding.
Representation of information using some sign system is discrete (composed of individual values). The figurative presentation of information is continuous.
THE MOST IMPORTANT
To save and transmit information to another person, a person records it using signs. A sign (set of signs) is a substitute for an object that allows the transmitter of information to evoke an image of the object in the mind of the recipient of the information.
Language is a sign system used by a person to express his thoughts and communicate with other people. There are natural and formal languages.
A person can present information in natural languages, formal languages, and in various figurative forms.
Presentation of information in any language or in figurative form is called encoding.
Questions and tasks
1. What is a sign? Give examples of signs used in human communication.
2. What do a pictogram and a symbol have in common? What is the difference between them?
H. What is a sign system? Try to describe the Russian language as a sign system. Describe the decimal number system as a sign system.
4. What type of writing (letter-sound, syllabic, ideographic) does the English writing belong to? Germans; French; Spaniards?
5. Which languages are currently the most widely spoken in the world? (The answer can be found in encyclopedias or on the Internet.)
b. What type of languages (natural or formal) can the naval flag alphabet be classified as?
7. Compare natural and formal languages:
a) by scope of application;
b) according to the rules of operating with language signs.
8. Why did people need formal languages?
9. In what cases can signs of formal languages be included in texts in natural language? Where did you encounter this?
Binary coding
Keywords:
Discretization alphabet
Power of the alphabet
Binary alphabet
Binary coding
Binary code width
| Binary coding | 5 1.3 |
1 . Z. 1. Converting information from continuous
Shapes to discrete
To solve his problems, a person often has to transform existing information from one form of representation to another. For example, when reading aloud, information is converted from discrete (text) form to continuous (sound). During a dictation in a Russian language lesson, on the contrary, information is transformed from a continuous form (the teacher’s voice) into a discrete one (students’ notes).
Information presented in discrete form is much easier to transmit, store or automatically process. Therefore, in computer technology, much attention is paid to methods for converting information from continuous to discrete form.
Information discretization is the process of converting information from a continuous form of representation into a discrete one,
Let's look at the essence of the information sampling process using an example.
Meteorological stations have recording instruments for continuous recording of atmospheric pressure. The result of their work is curves showing how pressure has changed over long periods of time (barograms). One of these curves, drawn by the device during seven hours of observation, is shown in Fig. 1.4.
Based on the information received, you can build a table in which the instrument readings at the beginning of measurements and at the end of each hour of observation will be entered (Fig. 1.5).
Rice. 1.5. Table built using a barogram
The resulting table does not give a completely complete picture of how the pressure changed during the observation period: for example, the highest pressure value that occurred during the fourth hour of observation is not indicated. But if you tabulate the pressure values observed every half hour or 15 minutes, the new table will give a more complete picture of how the pressure changed.
Thus, we converted information presented in continuous form (barogram, curve) into discrete form (table) with some loss of accuracy.
In the future, you will become familiar with ways to discretely represent audio and graphic information.
Binary coding
In general, to represent information in discrete form, it must be expressed using symbols in some natural or formal language. There are thousands of such languages. Each language has its own alphabet.
Alphabet is a set of symbols (signs) distinct from each other used to represent information. The power of the alphabet is the number of symbols (signs) included in it.
Rice. 1.7. Scheme for converting a character of an arbitrary alphabet into binary code
If the cardinality of the original alphabet is greater than two, then to encode a symbol of this alphabet you will need not one, but several binary symbols. In other words, the serial number of each character of the original alphabet will be associated with a chain (sequence) of several binary characters.
The rule for binary encoding of alphabet characters with power greater than two is represented by the diagram in Fig. 1.8.
L L LL
Chains of three binary symbols are obtained by adding two-digit binary codes to the right with the symbol O or 1. As a result, there are 8 three-digit binary code combinations - twice as many as two-digit ones:
Accordingly, a four-digit binary code allows you to get 16 code combinations, a five-digit one - 32, She (UTIZNACHNYY - 64, etc.
Please note that 2 = 2 1, 4 2 2, 8 = 23, 16 = 24, 32 = 25 etc. d.
If the number of code combinations is denoted by the letter N, and the bit depth of the binary code by the letter i, then the identified pattern in general form will be written as follows:
Task. The leader of the Multi tribe instructed his minister to develop a binary code and translate all important information into it. What depth of binary code will be required if the alphabet used by the Multi tribe contains 16 characters? Write down all code combinations.
Solution. Since the Multi tribe alphabet consists of 16 characters, they need 16 code combinations. In this case, the length (bit depth) of the binary code is determined from the ratio: 16 2 i. From here
To write down all the code combinations of four O and 1, we will use the diagram in Fig. 1.8: 0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, 0100, 0101,
The website http://school-collection.eduxu/ hosts the virtual laboratory “Digital Scales”. With its help, you can independently discover the difference method - one of the ways to obtain the binary code of entire de-
Language— a system of signs that have meaning. Language is a way of existence of consciousness and communication between man and man. First of all, you need to understand that consciousness is inextricably linked with language as a certain sign system. Sign- a material object (phenomenon, event), acting as a representative of another object and, therefore, reproducing its properties.
There are linguistic signs (part of a certain sign system) and non-linguistic signs (including copies, signs, symptoms). The “languages” of fine art, theater, cinema, dance, music, etc. can be considered as sign systems. Sign systems have arisen and are developing as a material form in which consciousness and thinking are carried out.
The initial sign system is ordinary spoken, natural language. In the language they distinguish speech - language in action, in a situation of communication, primarily oral, secondly written.
Thinking (consciousness) and language are inextricably linked, but not identical. The difference between them is that thought is a reflection of objective reality, while the word is a way of consolidating, expressing thoughts and at the same time a means of transmitting thoughts to other people.
Language serves as a condition for mutual understanding between people, as well as a person’s awareness of reality and himself. The means of facilitating the embodiment of thoughts in linguistic form are various types of speech: oral, written, internal (“think to yourself”). Speech is the process of using language to communicate.
Word as a unit of language, it has two sides: external, sound (phonetic) and internal, semantic (semantic). Both of them are products of long-term socio-historical development. The unity of these sides creates a word in which the functions of sign and meaning are fused.
So, consciousness and language are one. In this unity, the determining side is consciousness, thinking. Consciousness reflects reality, and language designates and expresses it. Language is a way of existence of consciousness.
Natural (verbal, auditory)— ordinary human language. Artificial is the language of signs and symbols. The first arises spontaneously in the process of communication between members of a certain social group. The second is created by people for some special purpose (languages of mathematics, logic, ciphers, etc.). A characteristic feature of natural languages is the polysemy of words, while artificial ones are unambiguous and precise. Let's take a closer look at these languages.
Natural language represents the richest developing integral system. Its elementary unit, the “atom” of language, is the word, which serves to name objects, persons, processes, properties, etc. Since its inception, natural language has continuously changed - this was due to the interaction of cultures, scientific and technological progress, etc. Some words lose their meanings over time (“phlogiston”, “caloric”), others acquire new meanings (“satellite” as a spacecraft).
Natural language seems to live its own life. It includes many nuances and features, which makes it difficult to accurately express an idea (especially a scientific one) in words. This is not helped by the presence in natural language of many figurative expressions, archaisms, borrowed words, hyperboles, idioms, metaphors, etc. In addition, natural language is rich in exclamations and interjections, the meaning of which is difficult to convey out of context.
Constructed languages - sign systems created by people for use in limited areas where accuracy, rigor, unambiguity, conciseness and simplicity of expression are necessary and sufficient. This is especially true for scientific purposes.
There are specialized and non-specialized languages. The latter are intended mainly for international communication. The most common of them is Esperanto. Specialized artificial languages include formalized symbol systems in various fields of science (mathematics, physics, chemistry, logic, linguistics, etc.), as well as a rapidly developing computer language that more and more fully models the natural language. Artificial languages are a complement to natural languages and exist only on their basis.
Natural languages are audio (speech) and then graphic (writing) information sign systems that have historically developed in society. They arose to consolidate and transfer accumulated information in the process of communication between people. Natural languages act as carriers of centuries-old culture and are inseparable from the history of the people who speak them.
Everyday reasoning is usually conducted in natural language. But such a language developed in the interests of ease of communication, the exchange of thoughts at the expense of accuracy and clarity. Natural languages have rich expressive capabilities: they can be used to express any knowledge (both ordinary and scientific), emotions, and feelings.
Natural language performs two main functions - representational and communicative. The representative function is that language is a means of symbolic expression or representation of abstract content (knowledge, concepts, thoughts, etc.), accessible through thinking to specific intellectual subjects. The communicative function is expressed in the fact that language is a means of transmitting or communicating this abstract content from one intellectual subject to another. The letters, words, sentences themselves (or other symbols, such as hieroglyphs) and their combinations form the material basis in which the material superstructure of the language is realized - a set of rules for constructing letters, words, sentences and other language symbols, and only together with the corresponding superstructure does it or another material basis forms a specific natural language.
Based on the semantic status of natural language, the following can be noted:
1. Since a language is a set of certain rules implemented on certain symbols, it is clear that there is not one language, but many natural languages. The material basis of any natural language is multidimensional, i.e. is divided into verbal, visual, tactile and other types of symbols. All these varieties are independent of each other, but in most real-life languages they are closely related to each other, with verbal symbols being dominant. Typically, the material basis of natural language is studied only in its two dimensions - verbal and visual (written). In this case, visual symbols are considered as a certain equivalent of the corresponding verbal symbols (the only exceptions are languages with hieroglyphic writing). From this point of view, it is permissible to talk about the same natural language having different varieties of visual symbols.
2. Due to differences in the base and superstructure, every concrete natural language represents the same abstract content in a unique, inimitable way. On the other hand, in any specific language such abstract content is also represented that is not represented in other languages (at one or another specific period of their development). However, this does not mean that each specific language has its own, special sphere of abstract content and that this sphere is part of the language itself. The sphere of abstract content is uniform and universal for all natural languages. This is why translation from one natural language to any other natural language is possible, despite the fact that all languages have different expressive capabilities and are at different stages of their development. For logic, natural languages are of interest not in themselves, but only as a means of representing the sphere of abstract content common to all languages, as a means of “seeing” this content and its structure. Those. the object of logical analysis is the abstract content itself as such, while natural languages are only a necessary condition for such analysis.
The sphere of abstract content is a structured area of clearly distinguishable objects of a special kind. These objects form a kind of rigid universal abstract structure. Natural languages represent not only certain elements of this structure, but also certain integral fragments of it. Any natural language to some extent truly reflects the structure of objective reality. But this display is superficial, inaccurate and contradictory. Natural language is formed in the process of spontaneous social experience. Its superstructure corresponds to the requirements not of purely theoretical, but of practical (mostly everyday) human activity and therefore represents a conglomerate of limited and often contradictory rules.