Physics
Structural levels of matter. Test: Structural levels of organization of matter: macroworld, microworld, megaworld. Features of the biological level of development of matter

Structural levels of matter. Test: Structural levels of organization of matter: macroworld, microworld, megaworld. Features of the biological level of development of matter

In modern science, the basis for ideas about the structure of the material world is a systems approach, according to which any object of the material world, be it an atom, a planet, etc. can be considered as a system - a complex formation that includes components, elements and connections between them. An element in this case means a minimal, further indivisible part of a given system.

The set of connections between elements forms the structure of the system; stable connections determine the orderliness of the system. Horizontal connections are coordinating and ensure correlation (consistency) of the system; no part of the system can change without changing other parts. Vertical connections are connections of subordination; some elements of the system are subordinate to others. The system has a sign of integrity - this means that all its component parts, when combined into a whole, form a quality that cannot be reduced to the qualities of individual elements. According to modern scientific views, everything natural objects are ordered, structured, hierarchically organized systems.

In the most general sense of the word “system” means any object or any phenomenon of the world around us and represents the interconnection and interaction of parts (elements) within the whole. Structure is the internal organization of a system, which contributes to the connection of its elements into a single whole and gives it unique features. Structure determines the ordering of the elements of an object. Elements are any phenomena, processes, as well as any properties and relationships that are in any kind of mutual connection and correlation with each other.

In understanding the structural organization of matter, the concept of “development” plays an important role. The concept of development of inanimate and living nature is considered as an irreversible directed change in the structure of natural objects, since the structure expresses the level of organization of matter. The most important property of a structure is its relative stability. Structure is a general, qualitatively defined and relatively stable order of internal relations between the subsystems of a particular system. The concept of “level of organization,” in contrast to the concept of “structure,” includes the idea of a change in structures and its sequence during the historical development of the system from the moment of its inception. While change in structure may be random and not always directed, change at the level of organization occurs in a necessary manner.

Systems that have reached the appropriate level of organization and have a certain structure acquire the ability to use information in order, through management, to maintain unchanged (or increase) their level of organization and contribute to the constancy (or decrease) of their entropy (entropy is a measure of disorder). Until recently, natural science and other sciences could do without a holistic, systematic approach to their objects of study, without taking into account the study of the processes of formation of stable structures and self-organization.

Currently, the problems of self-organization, studied in synergetics, are becoming relevant in many sciences, ranging from physics to ecology.

The task of synergetics is to clarify the laws of organizing an organization and the emergence of order. Unlike cybernetics, the emphasis here is not on the processes of managing and exchanging information, but on the principles of building an organization, its emergence, development and self-complication (G. Haken). The question of optimal ordering and organization is especially acute in research global problems- energy, environmental, and many others that require the attraction of enormous resources.

Modern views on structural organization matter

In classical natural science, the doctrine of the principles of the structural organization of matter was represented by classical atomism. The ideas of atomism served as the foundation for the synthesis of all knowledge about nature. In the 20th century, classical atomism underwent radical transformations.

Modern principles of the structural organization of matter are associated with the development of system concepts and include some conceptual knowledge about the system and its features that characterize the state of the system, its behavior, organization and self-organization, interaction with the environment, purposefulness and predictability of behavior, and other properties.

The simplest classification of systems is to divide them into static and dynamic, which, despite its convenience, is still conditional, because everything in the world is in constant change. Dynamic systems are divided into deterministic and stochastic (probabilistic). This classification is based on the nature of predicting the dynamics of system behavior. Such systems are studied in mechanics and astronomy. In contrast, stochastic systems, which are usually called probabilistic-statistical, deal with massive or repeating random events and phenomena. Therefore, the predictions in them are not reliable, but only probabilistic.

By the nature of interaction with environment open and closed (isolated) systems are distinguished, and sometimes partially open systems are also distinguished. This classification is mainly conditional, because the idea of closed systems arose in classical thermodynamics as a certain abstraction. The vast majority, if not all, systems are open source.

Many complex systems found in social world, are purposeful, i.e. focused on achieving one or more goals, and in different subsystems and on different levels organizations, these goals may be different and even come into conflict with each other.

The classification and study of systems made it possible to develop a new method of cognition, which was called the systems approach. The application of systems ideas to the analysis of economic and social processes contributed to the emergence of game theory and decision theory. The most significant step in the development of the systems method was the emergence of cybernetics as general theory control in technical systems, living organisms and society. Although individual control theories existed before cybernetics, the creation of a unified interdisciplinary approach made it possible to reveal deeper and more general patterns of control as a process of accumulation, transmission and transformation of information. The control itself is carried out using algorithms, which are processed by computers.

The universal theory of systems, which determined the fundamental role of the system method, expresses, on the one hand, the unity of the material world, and on the other hand, the unity of scientific knowledge. An important consequence of this consideration of material processes was the limitation of the role of reduction in the knowledge of systems. It became clear that the more some processes differ from others, the more qualitatively heterogeneous they are, the more difficult it is to reduce. Therefore, the patterns are more complex systems cannot be completely reduced to the laws of lower forms or more simple systems. As an antipode to the reductionist approach, a holistic approach arises (from the Greek holos - whole), according to which the whole always precedes the parts and is always more important than the parts.

Every system is a whole formed by its interconnected and interacting parts. Therefore, the process of cognition of natural and social systems can be successful only when their parts and the whole are studied not in opposition, but in interaction with each other.

Modern science views systems as complex, open, with many possibilities for new ways of development. The processes of development and functioning of a complex system have the nature of self-organization, i.e. the emergence of internally consistent functioning due to internal connections and connections with the external environment. Self-organization is a natural scientific expression of the process of self-motion of matter. Systems of living and inanimate nature, as well as artificial systems, have the ability to self-organize.

In the modern scientifically based concept of the systemic organization of matter, three structural levels of matter are usually distinguished:

microworld - the world of atoms and elementary particles– extremely small directly unobservable objects, dimension from 10 -8 cm to 10-16 cm, and lifetime - from infinity to 10-24 s.
the macrocosm is the world of stable forms and quantities commensurate with humans: earthly distances and velocities, masses and volumes; the dimension of macro-objects is comparable to the scale of human experience - spatial dimensions from fractions of a millimeter to kilometers and time dimensions from fractions of a second to years.
megaworld – the world of space (planets, star complexes, galaxies, metagalaxies); a world of enormous cosmic scales and speeds, distance is measured in light years, and time is measured in millions and billions of years;

The study of the hierarchy of structural levels of nature is associated with solving the complex problem of determining the boundaries of this hierarchy both in the megaworld and in the microworld. Objects of each subsequent stage arise and develop as a result of the combination and differentiation of certain sets of objects of the previous stage. Systems are becoming more and more multi-level. The complexity of the system increases not only because the number of levels increases. The development of new relationships between levels and with the environment common to such objects and their associations becomes essential.

The microworld, being a sublevel of the macroworlds and megaworlds, has completely unique features and therefore cannot be described by theories related to other levels of nature. In particular, this world is inherently paradoxical. The principle “consists of” does not apply to him. Thus, when two elementary particles collide, no smaller particles are formed. After the collision of two protons, many other elementary particles arise - including protons, mesons, and hyperons. The phenomenon of “multiple birth” of particles was explained by Heisenberg: during a collision, large kinetic energy is converted into matter, and we observe multiple birth of particles. The microworld is being actively studied. If 50 years ago only 3 types of elementary particles were known (electron and proton as the smallest particles of matter and photon as the minimum portion of energy), now about 400 particles have been discovered. The second paradoxical property of the microcosm is associated with the dual nature of the microparticle, which is both a wave and a corpuscle. Therefore, it cannot be strictly unambiguously localized in space and time. This feature is reflected in the Heisenberg uncertainty relation principle.

The levels of organization of matter observed by humans are mastered taking into account the natural living conditions of people, i.e. taking into account our earthly laws. However, this does not exclude the assumption that at levels sufficiently distant from us there may exist forms and states of matter characterized by completely different properties. In this regard, scientists began to distinguish geocentric and non-geocentric material systems.

The geocentric world is the reference and basic world of Newtonian time and Euclidean space, described by a set of theories related to objects on an earthly scale. Non-geocentric systems are a special type of objective reality, characterized by different types of attributes, different space, time, movement, than earthly ones. There is an assumption that the microworld and megaworld are windows into non-geocentric worlds, which means that their patterns, at least to a remote extent, make it possible to imagine a different type of interaction than in the macroworld or geocentric type of reality.

The solar system as imagined by an artist. The scale of distances from the Sun is not respected

There is no strict boundary between the megaworld and the macroworld. It is usually believed that it starts with distances of about 10 7 and masses of 10 20 kg. The reference point for the beginning of the megaworld can be the Earth. Since the megaworld deals with large distances, special units are introduced to measure them: astronomical unit, light year and parsec.

Astronomical unit(a.e.) – the average distance from the Earth to the Sun.

Light year – the distance that light travels in one year.

Parsec(parallax second) – the distance at which the annual parallax earth's orbit(i.e., the angle at which the semimajor axis of the earth's orbit is visible, located perpendicular to the line of sight) is equal to one second.

Celestial bodies in the Universe form systems of varying complexity. So the Sun and 9 planets moving around it form Solar system. The bulk of the stars in our galaxy are concentrated in a disk visible from the Earth “from the side” in the form of a foggy strip crossing the celestial sphere - the Milky Way.

All celestial bodies have their own history of development. The age of the Universe is 14 billion years. Age solar system is estimated at 5 billion years, the Earth - 4.5 billion years.

Another typology material systems is quite widespread today. This is the division of nature into inorganic and organic, in which a special place is occupied social form matter. Inorganic matter is elementary particles and fields, atomic nuclei, atoms, molecules, macroscopic bodies, geological formations. Organic matter also has a multi-level structure: precellular level - DNA, RNA, nucleic acids; cellular level – independently existing single-celled organisms; multicellular level – tissues, organs, functional systems (nervous, circulatory, etc.), organisms (plants, animals); supraorganismal structures – populations, biocenoses, biosphere. Social matter exists only thanks to the activities of people and includes special substructures: individual, family, group, collective, state, nation, etc.

Subject: Structural levels organizations of matter: macroworld, microworld, megaworld

University: VZFEI

Year and city: Ufa 2008

PLAN

1. Introduction
2. Systematic approach to the structure of matter
3. Interrelation of micro-, macro- and mega-worlds
4. The idea of classical physics, of field and matter as types of matter
5. Wave-particle duality
6. The structure of the atom from the point of view of modern physics
7. Elementary particles and their properties
8. Models of the Universe developed in modern cosmology
9. The main stages of the evolution of the Universe from the point of view of modern science
10. Conclusion
11. List of used literature

1. INTRODUCTION

The entire world around us is moving matter in its infinitely varied forms and manifestations, with all its properties, connections and relationships.

Matter (lat. Materia - substance), “...a philosophical category to designate objective reality, which is given to a person in his senses, which is copied, photographed, displayed by our senses, existing independently of us.”

The word "matter" has many meanings. In everyday life it is used to designate a particular fabric. Modern astronomy reports that the visible Universe contains hundreds of thousands of stars, stellar nebulae and other celestial bodies. All objects and phenomena, despite their diversity, have a common feature: they all exist outside of human consciousness and independently of him, i.e. are material. People are discovering more and more new properties of natural bodies and processes, producing an infinite number of things that do not exist in nature, therefore, matter is inexhaustible.

Matter and its attributes are uncreated and indestructible, exist forever and are infinitely varied in the form of their manifestations. All phenomena in the world are caused by natural material connections and interactions, causal relationships and laws of nature. In this sense, there is nothing supernatural or opposed to matter in the world. The human psyche and consciousness are also determined by material processes in the human brain and are the highest form of reflection of the external world.

2. SYSTEM APPROACH TO THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER

Structurality and systemic organization of matter are among its most important attributes, expressing the orderliness of the existence of matter and the specific forms in which it manifests itself.

Structure of matter. The structure of matter is usually understood as its structure in the macrocosm, i.e. existence in the form of molecules, atoms, elementary particles, etc. This is due to the fact that man is a macroscopic being and macroscopic scales are familiar to him, therefore the concept of structure is usually associated with various micro-objects.

But if we consider matter as a whole, then the concept of the structure of matter will also cover macroscopic bodies, all space systems megaworld, and on any arbitrarily large space-time scale. From this point of view, the concept of “structure” is manifested in the fact that it exists in the form of an infinite variety of integral systems, closely interconnected, as well as in the orderliness of the structure of each system. Such a structure is infinite in quantitative and qualitative terms.

Manifestations of the structural infinity of matter are:

inexhaustibility of objects and processes of the microworld;
infinity of space and time;
infinity of changes and development of processes.

Of the entire variety of forms of objective reality, only the finite region of the material world always remains empirically accessible, which now extends on a scale from 10-15 to 1028 cm, and in time - up to 2x109 years.

Structurality and systemic organization of matter are among its most important attributes. They express the orderliness of the existence of matter and those specific forms in which it manifests itself.

The material world is one: we mean that all its parts - from inanimate objects to living beings, from celestial bodies to man as a member of society - are somehow connected.

A system is something that is interconnected in a certain way and is subject to relevant laws.

A system is an internal or external ordered set of interconnected and interacting elements.

The orderliness of a set implies the presence of regular relationships between the elements of the system, which manifests itself in the form of laws of structural organization. All natural systems have internal order, arising as a result of the interaction of bodies and the natural self-development of matter. External is characteristic of man-made artificial systems: technical, production, etc.

Structural levels of matter formed from a certain set of objects of any class and are characterized by a special type of interaction between their constituent elements.

The criteria for identifying different structural levels are the following:

spatiotemporal scales;
a set of essential properties;
specific laws of motion;
the degree of relative complexity arising in the process of historical development of matter in a given area of the world;
some other signs.

3. RELATIONSHIP OF MICRO-, MACRO- AND MEGAMORMS

Microworld- these are molecules, atoms, elementary particles - the world of extremely small, not directly observable micro-objects, the spatial diversity of which is calculated from 10 -8 to 10 -16 cm, and the lifetime is from infinity to 10-24 s.

Macroworld- the world of stable forms and sizes commensurate with humans, as well as crystalline complexes of molecules, organisms, communities of organisms; the world of macro-objects, the dimension of which is comparable to the scale of human experience: spatial quantities are expressed in millimeters, centimeters and kilometers, and time - in seconds, minutes, hours, years.

Megaworld- these are planets, star complexes, galaxies, metagalaxies - a world of enormous cosmic scales and speeds, the distance in which is measured in light years, and the lifetime of space objects is measured in millions and billions of years.

And although these levels have their own specific laws, the micro-, macro- and mega-worlds are closely interconnected.

At the microscopic level, physics today is studying processes that take place at lengths of the order of 10 -18 cm, in a time of about 10-22 s. In the megaworld, scientists use instruments to record objects distant from us at a distance of about 9-12 billion light years.

As the size of objects increases, the energy of interaction decreases. If you take the energy gravitational interaction per unit, then the electromagnetic interaction in an atom will be 10 39 times greater, and the interaction between nucleons - the particles that make up the nucleus - will be 10 41 times greater. The smaller the size of material systems, the more firmly their elements are interconnected.

The division of matter into structural levels is relative. On available space-time scales, the structure of matter is manifested in its systemic organization, existence in the form of a multitude of hierarchically interacting systems, ranging from elementary particles to the Metagalaxy.

Speaking about structurality - the internal dismemberment of material existence, it can be noted that no matter how wide the range of the worldview of science, it is closely related to the discovery of more and more new structural formations. For example, if earlier the view of the Universe was limited to the Galaxy, then expanded to a system of galaxies, now the Metagalaxy is being studied as a special system with specific laws, internal and external interactions.

4. IDEA OF CLASSICAL PHYSICS, OF FIELD AND MATTER AS TYPES OF MATTER

Matter- a fundamental concept associated with any objects that exist in nature, which we can judge through our senses. Physics describes matter as something that exists in space and time (space-time) - an idea coming from Newton (space is the container of things, time is the container of events); or as something that itself defines the properties of space and time - a concept that comes from Leibniz and, later, found expression in Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity. Changes over time that occur in different forms of matter constitute physical phenomena.

Matter exists in two forms - substance and field. They are strictly separated and their transformation into each other is impossible. The main thing is the field, which means the main property of matter is continuity as opposed to discreteness (the concept of the continuous continuous structure of matter).

Substance. A classical substance can be in one of three states of aggregation: gaseous, liquid or solid. In addition, a highly ionized state of matter (usually gaseous, but, in a broad sense, any state of aggregation) is distinguished, called plasma.

Chemically, all substances are divided into simple and complex ( chemical compounds), as well as inorganic and organic substances.

Field in physics, one of the forms of matter that characterizes all points of space (or, more broadly, space-time) and has an infinite number of degrees of freedom. Each point in space is assigned a certain physical quantity. This value usually changes when moving from one point to another. Depending on the mathematical form This quantity is divided into scalar, vector, tensor and spinor fields.

Fields are also divided depending on their nature into electromagnetic, gravitational, magnetic, electric and nuclear forces. Fields appear in the form of interaction (transferred with finite speed) of bodies (in this case, the force of interaction is determined by various characteristics of bodies: mass for gravitational field, charge for electromagnetic, etc.), which in quantum physics are explained by the transfer of particles specific to each type of field (photons for electromagnetic, hypothetical gravitons for gravitational, etc.). For a long time it was believed that the field is only a visual theoretical explanation of such phenomena as light waves until in 1887 Heinrich Rudolf Hertz proved the existence of the electromagnetic field experimentally.

5. PART-WAVE DUALISM IN MODERN PHYSICS

Wave-particle duality is the property of any microparticle to detect signs of a particle (corpuscle) and a wave. The wave-particle duality is most clearly manifested in elementary particles. An electron, a neutron, a photon under certain conditions behave as if they are well localized in space material objects(particles) moving with certain energies and impulses along classical trajectories, and in others - like waves, which is manifested in their ability to interfere and diffraction. Thus, an electromagnetic wave, scattering on free electrons, behaves like a stream of individual particles - photons, which are quanta of the electromagnetic field (Compton effect), and the momentum of the photon is given by the formula p = h/1, where p is the length of the electromagnetic wave, and h is Planck’s constant . This formula in itself is evidence of dualism. In it, on the left is the momentum of an individual particle (photon), and on the right is the wavelength of the photon.

The duality of electrons, which we are accustomed to consider as particles, is manifested in the fact that when reflected from the surface of a single crystal, a diffraction pattern is observed, which is a manifestation of the wave properties of electrons. The quantitative relationship between the corpuscular and wave characteristics of an electron is the same as for a photon: p = h/1 (p is the momentum of the electron, and h is its de Broglie wavelength).

Wave-particle duality is the basis of quantum physics.

6. ATOMIC STRUCTURE FROM THE POINT OF MODERN PHYSICS

The hypothesis of atoms as indivisible particles of matter was revived in natural science and primarily in physics and chemistry to explain such empirical laws as the Boyle-Mariotte and Gay-Lussac laws for ideal gases, thermal expansion of bodies and various chemical laws. In fact, the Boyle-Mariotte law states that the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure, but does not explain why. Similarly, when a body is heated, its dimensions increase, but the empirical law of thermal expansion does not explain the reason for such expansion.

Obviously, for such an explanation it is necessary to go beyond the observed dependencies that are expressed in empirical laws and turn to theoretical hypotheses and laws. Unlike empirical laws, they contain concepts and quantities related to unobservable objects. Atoms, as well as molecules formed from them, are precisely such objects. With the help of atoms and molecules, the kinetic theory of matter convincingly explains all the listed and other known empirical laws. In chemistry, an atom is usually defined as the smallest part or unit of a chemical element.

However, an attempt to reduce all the diverse and complex properties and patterns of bodies and phenomena of the surrounding world to simpler ones could hardly be considered successful, if only because at each level of knowledge new boundaries were revealed and new indivisible final particles were found matter. Until the end of the last century, the atom was considered such a particle, but major discoveries in physics led to the abandonment of this point of view. Among these discoveries, it should be noted, firstly, the detection of natural radioactivity phenomena such chemical elements, like radium and uranium. It turned out that these elements are natural conditions They emit specific radioactive rays and, as a result, turn into other chemical elements, and ultimately into lead. From here it immediately followed that atoms are not at all immutable, indivisible and the last building blocks of the universe. Shortly after radioactivity, the smallest particle of electricity, the electron, was discovered. In 1913, E. Rutherford, studying the scattering of α particles by atoms heavy elements, showed that the bulk of the mass of an atom is concentrated in its central part - the nucleus, since α -particles pass unhindered away from it. Based on these experiments, he proposed planetary model atom, according to which negatively charged electrons rotate in their orbits around a massive nucleus.

Subsequently, this model was significantly modified. It turned out that electrons cannot rotate in any orbits, but only in stationary ones, because otherwise they would continuously emit energy and fall onto the nucleus, and the atom would spontaneously collapse. Nothing like this, however, is observed, since atoms are very stable formations. All these and related revolutionary discoveries could not be understood and explained from the point of view of old, classical physics.

After physicists established that the atom is not the last building block of the universe and that it itself is built from simpler, elementary particles, the idea of searching for such particles took the main place in their research. As before, the thoughts of physicists were aimed at reducing all the diversity complex properties bodies and natural phenomena to simple properties a small number of primary ones, fundamental particles, which were later called elementary. The most famous elementary particles are electron, photon, pi-mesons, muons, heavy leptons and neutrinos. Later, particles with very exotic names were discovered: strange particles, mesons with hidden "charm", "charmed" particles, upsilion particles, various resonant particles and many others. Their total number exceeds 350. Therefore, it is unlikely that all such particles can be called truly elementary, not containing other elements. This conviction is strengthened in connection with the hypothesis of the existence of quarks, from which, by assumption, all known elementary particles are built.

One of the characteristic features of elementary particles is that they have extremely insignificant masses and sizes. The mass of most of them is on the order of the mass of a proton, i.e. 1.6 x 10 -24 g, and their dimensions are on the order of 10 -16 cm. Another property of them is the ability to be born and destroyed, i.e. emitted and absorbed during interaction with other particles. For example, the transformation of a pair of electron and positron into two photons: e - + e + -> 2γ

Similar interconversions occur with other elementary particles.

Rice. 2. Atomic structure

7. ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND THEIR PROPERTIES

In accordance with the achievements of quantum physics, the fundamental concept of modern atomism is the concept of an elementary particle, but they have properties that had nothing in common with the atomism of antiquity.

The development of microworld physics has shown the inexhaustibility of the properties of elementary particles and their interactions. All particles with sufficiently high energy are capable of interconversion, but subject to a number of conservation laws. The number of known elementary particles is constantly growing and already exceeds 300 varieties, including unstable resonant states. The most important property of a particle is its rest mass. Based on this property, particles are divided into 4 groups:

1. Light particles - leptons (photon, electron, positron). Photons have no rest mass.

2. Particles of average mass - mesons (mu-meson, pi-meson).

3. Heavy particles - baryons. These include nucleons - components of the nucleus: protons and neutrons. The proton is the lightest baryon.

4. Superheavy - hyperons. There are few stable varieties: photons (quanta electromagnetic radiation); gravitons (hypothetical quanta of the gravitational field); electrons; positrons (antiparticles of electrons); protons and antiprotons; neutrons; neutrinos are the most mysterious of all elementary particles.

Neutrinos play a big role in space processes in the entire evolution of matter in the Universe. Their lifespan is almost endless. According to scientists, neutrinos carry away a significant portion of the energy emitted by stars. Our Sun loses approximately 7% of energy due to neutrino radiation; approximately 300 million neutrinos fall per second on every square centimeter of the Earth perpendicular to the sun's rays. Further fate This radiation is unknown, but, obviously, the neutrino must re-enter the cycle of matter in nature.

Feature of elementary particles is that most of them can arise in collisions with other particles of sufficiently high energy: a high-energy proton turns into a neutron with the emission of a pi-meson. In this case, elementary particles decay into others: a neutron into an electron, a proton and an antineutrino, and a neutral pi-meson into two photons. Pi mesons are thus nuclear field quanta that unite nucleons and nuclei.

As science develops, new properties of elementary particles are being discovered. The mutual dependence of the properties of particles indicates their complex nature, the presence of multifaceted connections and relationships.

Most elementary particles have antiparticles, distinguished by opposite signs of electric charges and magnetic moments: antiprotons, antineutrons, etc. Antiparticles can be used to form stable atomic nuclei and antimatter, which obeys the same laws of motion as ordinary matter. Antimatter has not been found in large quantities in space, so the existence of an “anti-world”, i.e. galaxies made of antimatter is problematic.

Thus, with each new discovery, the structure of the microworld is refined and turns out to be more and more complex. The deeper we go into it, the more new properties science discovers.

8. MODELS OF THE UNIVERSE DEVELOPED IN MODERN COSMOLOGY

Modern cosmological models of the Universe are based on A. Einstein’s general theory of relativity, according to which the metric of space and time is determined by the distribution gravitational masses in the Universe. Its properties as a whole are determined by the average density of matter and other specific physical factors. Modern relativistic cosmology builds models of the Universe, starting from the basic equation of gravity introduced by A. Einstein in the general theory of relativity. Einstein's gravitational equation has not one, but many solutions, which explains the existence of many cosmological models of the Universe. The first model was developed by L. Einstein himself in 1917. In accordance with A. Einstein’s cosmological model of the Universe, world space is homogeneous and isotropic, matter on average is distributed evenly in it, gravitational attraction of masses is compensated by universal cosmological repulsion .

This model seemed quite satisfactory at the time, since it was consistent with all known facts. But new ideas put forward by A. Einstein stimulated further research, and soon the approach to the problem changed decisively.

In the same 1917, the Dutch astronomer W. de Sitter proposed another model, which also represented a solution to the gravitational equations. This solution had the property that it would exist even in the case of an “empty” Universe, free of matter. If masses appeared in such a Universe, then the solution ceased to be stationary: a certain kind of cosmic repulsion between the masses arose, tending to remove them from each other and dissolve the entire system. The tendency to expansion, according to W. de Sitter, became noticeable only at very large distances.

In 1922, Russian mathematician and geophysicist L.A. Friedman rejected the postulate of classical cosmology about the stationarity of the Universe and gave the currently accepted solution to the cosmological problem.

Solving the equations of A.A. Friedman, allows three possibilities:

if the average density of matter and radiation in the Universe is equal to a certain critical value, the world space turns out to be Euclidean and the Universe expands indefinitely from the initial point state;
if the density is less than critical, the space has Lobachevsky geometry and also expands without limit;
if the density is greater than critical, the space of the Universe turns out to be Riemannian, expansion at some stage is replaced by compression, which continues until the initial point state.

According to modern data, the average density of matter in the Universe is less than critical, so the Lobachevsky model is considered more probable, i.e. spatially infinite expanding Universe. It is possible that some types of matter that have great importance for the average density value, remain unaccounted for now. In this regard, it is still premature to draw final conclusions about the finiteness or infinity of the Universe.

The expansion of the Universe is considered a scientifically established fact. W. de Sitter was the first to search for data on the movement of spiral galaxies. The discovery of the Doppler effect, which indicated the removal of galaxies, gave impetus to further theoretical studies and new and improved measurements of the distances and velocities of spiral nebulae.

In 1929, American astronomer E.P. Hubble discovered the existence of a strange relationship between the distance and speed of galaxies: all galaxies are moving away from us, and with a speed that increases proportionally distance, - system galaxies are expanding.

But the fact that the Universe is currently expanding does not yet allow us to unambiguously resolve the issue in favor of one model or another.

9. MAIN STAGES OF THE EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF MODERN SCIENCE

As one of the most probable scenarios evolution of the Universe, within the framework of which most cosmological problems can be solved, modern cosmology considers a scenario that includes an inflationary stage. Inflation translated from Latin means inflation. The inflationary stage involves the process of inflation of the Universe. The main idea of the inflationary theory is that both the expansion of the Universe and the entire subsequent course evolutionary development are considered from a state when all matter was represented only by a physical vacuum. However, in the physical sense, vacuum is not emptiness; processes of birth and destruction of all kinds of particles, quanta, and fields constantly occur in it.

Big Bang Model. It is believed that after 15 billion years ago there was Big Bang, the gradual cooling and expansion of the Universe began. The causes of the Big Bang and the transition to expansion in all models of the Universe are considered unclear and beyond the competence of any physical science. modern theory. But if there was an explosion, then the picture looks like this:

1. After 10 -43 s from the beginning of the expansion, the birth of particles and antiparticles began.

2. After 10 -6 s - the emergence of protons and antiprotons and their annihilation. The number of protons exceeded the number of antiprotons by one hundred millionth part (10 -8), as a result of which, after annihilation, the substance from which all galaxies, stars and planets arose emerged and was preserved. If the number of protons were equal to the number of antiprotons, then the matter would completely turn into radiation and observation of Space and Earth would be impossible.

3. 1 s after the start of expansion, electron-positron pairs began to be created and annihilated.

4. After 1 minute, nuclear fusion and the formation of deuterium and helium nuclei began. The latter accounted for approximately 30% of the mass of the remaining protons. The formation of heavier elements could not be explained within the framework of this theory, since there was not enough time for their synthesis during the expansion process. These elements are formed in the subsequent evolution of stars as a result thermonuclear reactions in their depths, and heavy elements are synthesized during supernova explosions and then thrown into outer space, where they are eventually concentrated into gas-dust clouds, from which second-generation stars like the Sun and planets around them are formed.

300 thousand years after the Big Bang, radiation was separated from matter, the Universe became transparent, and over the next billions of years galaxies began to form, primary stars in globular clusters and second-generation stars in the spiral arms of galaxies.

10. CONCLUSION

People have long tried to find an explanation for the diversity and weirdness of the world.

All of the above revolutionary discoveries in physics overturned previously existing views of the world. The belief in the universality of laws has disappeared classical mechanics, because the previous ideas about the indivisibility of the atom, the constancy of mass, the immutability of chemical elements, etc., were destroyed.

In modern science, the basis for ideas about the structure of the material world is a systems approach, according to which any object of the material world, be it an atom, planet, organism or galaxy, can be considered as a complex formation, including component parts organized into integrity. To denote the integrity of objects in science, the concept of a system was developed.

The starting point of any systemic research is the idea of the integrity of the system being studied. The integrity of the system means that all its component parts, when combined together, form a unique whole that has new integrative properties.

In the natural sciences, two large classes of material systems are distinguished: systems of inanimate nature and systems of living nature.

In inanimate nature, elementary particles, atoms, molecules, fields, physical vacuum, macroscopic bodies, planets and planetary systems, stars and star systems- galaxies, systems of galaxies - metagalaxy.

In living nature, the structural levels of organization of matter include systems at the precellular level - nucleic acids and proteins; cells as a special level biological organization, presented in the form single-celled organisms and elementary units of living matter; multicellular organisms of flora and fauna; supraorganismal structures, including species, populations and biocenoses, and, finally, the biosphere as the entire mass of living matter.

Natural sciences, having begun the study of the material world with the simplest material objects directly perceived by humans, move on to the study of the most complex objects of the deep structures of matter, beyond the limits of human perception and incommensurable with the objects of everyday experience.

The study of matter and its structural levels is a necessary condition formation of a worldview, regardless of whether it ultimately turns out to be materialistic or idealistic.

LIST OF REFERENCES USED

Weinberg S. The first three minutes. A modern view of the origin of the Universe / S. Weinberg. -M.: Nauka, 1981
Dorfman Ya.G. The World History physicists from the beginning of the century to the middle of the century 8Ya.G. Dorfman. -M.: Nauka, 1979
Marion J.B. Physics and physical world/J.B. Marion. -M.: Mir, 1975
Khoroshavina S.G. Concepts modern natural science: course of lectures / Ed. 4th. - Rostov n/a: Phoenix, 2005
Shklovsky I.S. Stars, their birth, life and death / I.S. Shklovsky. -M.: Nauka, 1977

Liked? Click on the button below. To you not difficult, and for us Nice).

To download for free Test work at maximum speed, register or log in to the site.

Important! All submitted Tests for free downloading are intended for drawing up a plan or basis for your own scientific works.

Friends! You have a unique opportunity to help students just like you! If our site helped you find the job you need, then you certainly understand how the work you add can make the work of others easier.

If the Test work, in your opinion, is of poor quality, or you have already seen this work, please let us know.

6.2. Structural levels of matter Microworld, Macromorm, Megaworld.

6.3. Structures of the macroworld Mechanistic concept of describing the macroworld.

6.4. Structures of the microworld Quantum-mechanical concept of describing the microworld

6.1. Systemic organization of matter

System - this is a certain integrity that manifests itself as something unified in relation to other objects or conditions.

The concept of a system includes set of elements And communications between them.

Under element of the system is understood as a component of the system, which is further, within this system, considered as indivisible.

Moreover element is such only in relation to a given system; in other respects, it itself can represent a complex system.

The structural organization of matter is understood as its hierarchical structure - any object from microparticles to organisms, planets and galaxies is part of a more complex formation and can itself be considered as such, i.e., consisting of certain components.

The set of connections between elements forms the structure of the system.

Stable connections between elements determine the orderliness of the system.

There are two types of connections between system elements:

Contacts by " horizontal " - these are coordination connections between same-order elements. They are correlated in nature: no part of the system can change without other parts changing.

Contacts by " verticals " - these are connections of subordination, i.e. subordination of elements. They express the complex internal structure of the system, where some parts may be inferior in importance to others and be subordinate to them. The vertical structure includes levels of system organization, as well as their hierarchy.

The starting point of any systemic research is the idea of integrity the system being studied.

The integrity of the system means that all its component parts, when combined together, form a unique whole that has new integrative properties.

The properties of a system are not just the sum of the properties of its elements, but something new, inherent only to the system as a whole.

So, according to modern scientific views on nature, all natural objects are ordered, structured, hierarchically organized systems.

All systems are divided into closed , in which there are no connections with the external environment, and open related to the external environment.

6.2. Structural levels of matter Microworld, Macromorm, Megaworld.

Under structure of matter usually understand its structure in the macrocosm, i.e. existence in the form of molecules, atoms, elementary particles, etc.

The criteria for identifying different structural levels are the following:

spatiotemporal scales;

a set of essential properties;

specific laws of motion;

degree of relative difficulty;

In the natural sciences, two large classes of material systems are distinguished: inanimate systems And wildlife systems .

IN inanimate nature The following are distinguished as structural levels of the organization of matter:

Molecule - the smallest particle of a substance that retains its chemical properties. Molecules are made up of atoms connected by chemical bonds.

The theory of the chemical structure of molecules was created by A.M. Butlerov, and later confirmed by quantum mechanical calculations.

Under molecular structure is understood as a combination of atoms that have a regular arrangement in space and are interconnected by a chemical bond using valence electrons.

Atom - component of a molecule.

The existence of atomic structure was proven by Thomson with the discovery of the electron in 1897.

Following the electron, they discovered elementary particles. To organize them, they are grouped by life time, participation in different types fundamental interactions and other features.

Microworld - the world of very small micro-objects, whose sizes range from 10 -10 to 10 -18 m, and their lifetime can be up to 10 -24 s. The emission and absorption of light occurs in portions, quanta, called photons. This is the world - from atoms to elementary particles.

At the same time, the microcosm is characterized by corpuscular-wave dualism, i.e. any microobject has both wave and corpuscular properties.

The description of the microworld is based on N. Bohr's principle of complementarity And Heisenberg uncertainty relations . The world of elementary particles, which have long been considered elementary “building blocks,” obeys the laws quantum mechanics, quantum electrodynamics, quantum chromodynamics.

Macroworld is a world of objects commensurate with human experience. The dimensions of macro-objects are measured from fractions of a millimeter to hundreds of kilometers, and time - from seconds to hundreds - thousands of years. The behavior of macroscopic bodies consisting of microparticles is described by classical mechanics and electrodynamics.

Matter can exist both in the form of matter and in the form of a field, and the matter is discrete, and the field is continuous.

The speed of field propagation is equal to the speed of light, the maximum possible speed, and the speed of movement of particles of matter is always less than the speed of light.

Megaworld - the world of objects on a cosmic scale: planets, stars, galaxies, Metagalaxy. In addition to them, the Universe contains matter in the form of radiation and diffuse matter. The latter can occupy vast spaces in the form of giant clouds of gas and dust - gas-dust nebulae.

There are 97 concentrated in the stars % substances of our Galaxy - the Milky Way.

The diameter of the Galaxy is about 100 thousand light years. years;

Light year equal to the distance, which light travels in a vacuum, unaffected by gravitational fields, in one Julian year..

A light year is equal to: kilometers.

Our Sun is an ordinary star of the “yellow dwarf” type.

Galaxies (up to 10 billion of them), observed from Earth as nebulous specks, have different shapes: spiral, irregular, elliptical. They form clusters of several thousand individual systems.

The galaxy system is called Metagalaxy .

Megaworld – or space, modern science considers all celestial bodies as an interacting and developing system.

The megaworld is described by the laws of classical mechanics with amendments made by the theory of relativity.

The distinction between the levels of organization of living things was introduced in the 60s of the twentieth century by the domestic philosopher V.I. Kremyansky, in his book “Structural levels of living matter” (1969), summarizing the previous experience of level classifications.

IN wildlife The structural levels of matter organization include:

precellular systems – nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) and proteins (including viruses and non-cellular probionts - the first living organisms capable of self-regulation and self-reproduction).

cells as a special level of biological organization, presented in the form of single-celled organisms and elementary units of living matter;

multicellular organisms flora and fauna;

supraorganismal structures , including species, populations and biocenoses, and finally, the biosphere as the entire mass of living matter.

Population (biotope) - a set (community) of individuals of the same species (for example, a pack of wolves) that can interbreed and reproduce their own kind

Biocenosis - a set of populations of organisms in which the waste products of some are the conditions for the existence of other organisms inhabiting an area of land or water.

Biosphere - a global system of life, that part of the geographical environment (lower part of the atmosphere, upper part of the lithosphere and hydrosphere), which is the habitat of living organisms, providing the conditions necessary for their survival (temperature, soil, etc.), formed as a result of the interaction of biocenoses .

The general basis of life at the biological level is organic metabolism (exchange of matter, energy and information with the environment) - which manifests itself in any of the identified sublevels.

STRUCTURAL LEVELS OF MATTER
Inorganic nature	Live nature	Society
Submicroelementary	Biological macromolecular	Individual
Microelementary	Cellular	Family
Nuclear	Microorganic	Teams
Atomic	Organs and tissues	Large social groups(classes, nations)
Molecular	Body as a whole	State (civil society)
Macro level	Populations	State systems
Mega level (planets, star-planetary systems, galaxies)	Biocenosis	Humanity as a whole
Meta level (metagalaxies)	Biosphere	1. Introduction. The entire world around us is moving matter in its infinitely varied forms and manifestations, with all its properties, connections and relationships. Let's take a closer look at what matter is, as well as its structural levels. 1. What is matter. The history of the emergence of the view of matter. Matter (lat. Materia - substance), “...a philosophical category to designate objective reality, which is given to a person in his senses, which is copied, photographed, displayed by our senses, existing independently of us.” Matter is an infinite set of all objects and systems existing in the world, the substrate of any properties, connections, relationships and forms of movement. Matter includes not only all directly observable objects and bodies of nature, but also all those that, in principle, can be known in the future on the basis of improving the means of observation and experiment. From the point of view of the Marxist-Leninist understanding of matter, it is organically connected with the dialectical-materialist solution to the main question of philosophy; it proceeds from the principle of the material unity of the world, the primacy of matter in relation to human consciousness and the principle of the knowability of the world on the basis of a consistent study of specific properties, connections and forms of movement of matter. The basis for ideas about the structure of the material world is a systems approach, according to which any object of the material world, be it an atom, planet, organism or galaxy, can be considered as a complex formation, including component parts organized into integrity. To denote the integrity of objects in science, the concept of a system was developed. Matter as an objective reality includes not only matter in its four states of aggregation(solid, liquid, gaseous, plasma), but also physical fields(electromagnetic, gravitational, nuclear, etc.), as well as their properties, relationships, interaction products. It also includes antimatter (a set of antiparticles: positron, or antielectron, antiproton, antineutron), recently discovered by science. Antimatter is by no means antimatter. Antimatter cannot exist at all. The negation here does not go further than “not” (non-matter). Movement and matter are organically and inextricably linked with each other: there is no movement without matter, just as there is no matter without movement. In other words, there are no unchanging things, properties and relationships in the world. “Everything flows”, everything changes. Some forms or types are replaced by others, transform into others - movement is constant. Peace is a dialectically disappearing moment in the continuous process of change and becoming. Absolute peace is tantamount to death, or rather, non-existence. One can understand in this regard A. Bergson, who considered all reality as an indivisible moving continuity. Or A.N. Whitehead, for whom “reality is a process.” Both motion and rest are definitely fixed only in relation to some frame of reference. Thus, the table at which these lines are written is at rest relative to the given room, which, in turn, is at rest relative to the given house, and the house itself is at rest relative to the Earth. But together with the Earth, the table, room and house move around earth's axis and around the Sun. Moving matter exists in two main forms - in space and in time. The concept of space serves to express the properties of extension and order of coexistence of material systems and their states. It is objective, universal (universal form) and necessary. The concept of time fixes the duration and sequence of changes in the states of material systems. Time is objective, inevitable and irreversible. It is necessary to distinguish between philosophical and natural scientific ideas about space and time. The philosophical approach itself is represented here by four concepts of space and time: substantial and relational, static and dynamic. The founder of the view of matter as consisting of discrete particles was Democritus. Democritus denied the infinite divisibility of matter. Atoms differ from each other only in shape, order of mutual succession, and position in empty space, as well as in size and gravity, which depends on the size. They have infinitely varied shapes with depressions or bulges. Democritus also calls atoms “figures” or “figurines,” from which it follows that the atoms of Democritus are the smallest, further indivisible figures or figurines. In modern science there has been much debate about whether Democritus' atoms are physical or geometric bodies, but Democritus himself has not yet come to the distinction between physics and geometry. From these atoms moving in different directions, from their “vortex”, by natural necessity, through the bringing together of mutually similar atoms, both individual whole bodies and the whole world are formed; the movement of atoms is eternal, and the number of emerging worlds is infinite. The world of objective reality accessible to humans is constantly expanding. The conceptual forms of expressing the idea of structural levels of matter are diverse. Modern science identifies three structural levels in the world. 2. Micro, Macro, Mega worlds. Microworld– these are molecules, atoms, elementary particles - the world of extremely small, not directly observable micro-objects, the spatial diversity of which is calculated from 10 -8 to 10 -16 cm, and the lifetime is from infinity to 10 -24 s. Macroworld- the world of stable forms and sizes commensurate with humans, as well as crystalline complexes of molecules, organisms, communities of organisms; the world of macro-objects, the dimension of which is comparable to the scale of human experience: spatial quantities are expressed in millimeters, centimeters and kilometers, and time - in seconds, minutes, hours, years. Megaworld- these are planets, star complexes, galaxies, metagalaxies - a world of enormous cosmic scales and speeds, the distance in which is measured in light years, and the lifetime of space objects is measured in millions and billions of years. And although these levels have their own specific laws, the micro-, macro- and mega-worlds are closely interconnected. At the microscopic level, physics today is studying processes that take place at lengths of the order of 10 to the minus eighteenth power of cm, over a time of the order of 10 to the minus twenty-second power of s. In the megaworld, scientists use instruments to record objects distant from us at a distance of about 9-12 billion light years. *Microworld.* Democritus in antiquity put forward the Atomistic hypothesis of the structure of matter , later, in the 18th century. was revived by the chemist J. Dalton, who took the atomic weight of hydrogen as one and compared the atomic weights of other gases with it. Thanks to the works of J. Dalton, the physical and chemical properties of the atom began to be studied. In the 19th century D.I. Mendeleev built a system of chemical elements based on their atomic weight. In physics, the idea of atoms as the last indivisible structural elements matter came from chemistry. Actually, physical studies of the atom begin at the end of the 19th century, when the French physicist A. A. Becquerel discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity, which consisted in the spontaneous transformation of atoms of some elements into atoms of other elements. The history of research into the structure of the atom began in 1895 thanks to the discovery by J. Thomson of the electron, a negatively charged particle that is part of all atoms. Since electrons have negative charge, and the atom as a whole is electrically neutral, it was assumed that in addition to the electron there is a positively charged particle. The mass of the electron was calculated to be 1/1836 of the mass of a positively charged particle. There were several models of the structure of the atom. In 1902, the English physicist W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) proposed the first model of the atom - positive charge distributed over a fairly large area, and electrons are interspersed with it, like “raisins in pudding.” In 1911, E. Rutherford proposed a model of the atom that resembled the solar system: in the center there is an atomic nucleus, and electrons move around it in their orbits. The nucleus has a positive charge and the electrons have a negative charge. Instead of the gravitational forces acting in the solar system, in the atom there are electrical forces. Electric charge of the nucleus of an atom, numerically equal to the atomic number in periodic table Mendeleev, is balanced by the sum of the electron charges - the atom is electrically neutral. Both of these models turned out to be contradictory. In 1913, the great Danish physicist N. Bohr applied the principle of quantization to solve the problem of the structure of the atom and the characteristics of atomic spectra. N. Bohr's model of the atom was based on the planetary model of E. Rutherford and on the quantum theory of atomic structure developed by him. N. Bohr put forward a hypothesis about the structure of the atom, based on two postulates that are completely incompatible with classical physics: 1) in each atom there are several stationary states (in the language of the planetary model, several stationary orbits) of electrons, moving along which an electron can exist without emitting ; 2) when an electron transitions from one stationary state to another, the atom emits or absorbs a portion of energy. Ultimately, it is fundamentally impossible to accurately describe the structure of an atom based on the idea of the orbits of point electrons, since such orbits do not actually exist. N. Bohr's theory represents, as it were, the borderline of the first stage in the development of modern physics. This is the latest effort to describe the structure of the atom based on classical physics, supplemented with only a small number of new assumptions. It seemed that N. Bohr's postulates reflected some new, unknown properties of matter, but only partially. Answers to these questions were obtained as a result of the development of quantum mechanics. It turned out that N. Bohr's atomic model should not be taken literally, as it was at the beginning. Processes in the atom, in principle, cannot be visually represented in the form of mechanical models by analogy with events in the macrocosm. Even the concepts of space and time in the form existing in the macroworld turned out to be unsuitable for describing microphysical phenomena. The theoretical physicists' atom increasingly became an abstract, unobservable sum of equations. *Macroworld* . In the history of the study of nature, two stages can be distinguished: pre-scientific And scientific . Pre-scientific, or natural philosophy, covers the period from antiquity to the formation of experimental natural science in the 16th-17th centuries. Observed natural phenomena explained on the basis of speculative philosophical principles. The most significant for the subsequent development of natural sciences was the concept of the discrete structure of matter, atomism, according to which all bodies consist of atoms - the smallest particles in the world. Begins with the formation of classical mechanics scientific stage of studying nature. Since modern scientific ideas about the structural levels of the organization of matter were developed in the course of a critical rethinking of the ideas of classical science, applicable only to macro-level objects, we need to start with the concepts of classical physics. The formation of scientific views on the structure of matter dates back to the 16th century, when G. Galileo laid the foundation for the first physical picture of the world in the history of science - a mechanical one. He not only substantiated the heliocentric system of N. Copernicus and discovered the law of inertia, but developed a methodology for a new way of describing nature - scientific and theoretical. Its essence was that only some physical and geometric characteristics stood out, which became the subject scientific research. Galileo wrote: " I will never demand from external bodies anything other than size, figure, quantity and more or less rapid movement in order to explain the occurrence of taste, smell and sound. » . I. Newton, based on the works of Galileo, developed a strict scientific theory mechanics, which describes both the movement of celestial bodies and the movement of terrestrial objects by the same laws. Nature was viewed as a complex mechanical system. Within mechanical picture of the world, developed by I. Newton and his followers, a discrete (corpuscular) model of reality emerged. Matter was considered as a material substance consisting of individual particles - atoms or corpuscles. Atoms are absolutely strong, indivisible, impenetrable, characterized by the presence of mass and weight. An essential characteristic of the Newtonian world was three dimensional space Euclidean geometry, which is absolutely constant and always at rest. Time was presented as a quantity independent of either space or matter. Movement was considered as movement in space along continuous trajectories in accordance with the laws of mechanics. The result of Newton's picture of the world was the image of the Universe as a gigantic and completely determined mechanism, where events and processes are a chain of interdependent causes and effects. The mechanistic approach to describing nature has proven to be extremely fruitful. Following Newtonian mechanics, hydrodynamics, the theory of elasticity, the mechanical theory of heat, molecular kinetic theory and a number of others were created, in line with which physics has achieved enormous success. However, there were two areas - optical and electromagnetic phenomena, which could not be fully explained within the framework of a mechanistic picture of the world. Along with mechanical corpuscular theory, attempts have been made to explain optical phenomena in a fundamentally different way, namely, on the basis of the wave theory formulated by X. Huygens. The wave theory established an analogy between the propagation of light and the movement of waves on the surface of water or sound waves in the air. It assumed the presence of an elastic medium filling all space - a luminiferous ether. Based on the wave theory of X. Huygens successfully explained the reflection and refraction of light. Another area of physics where mechanical models proved inadequate was the area of electromagnetic phenomena. The experiments of the English naturalist M. Faraday and the theoretical works of the English physicist J. C. Maxwell finally destroyed the ideas of Newtonian physics about discrete matter as the only type of matter and laid the foundation for the electromagnetic picture of the world. The phenomenon of electromagnetism was discovered by the Danish naturalist H. K. Oersted, who first noticed the magnetic effect of electric currents. Continuing research in this direction, M. Faraday discovered that a temporary change in magnetic fields creates an electric current. M. Faraday came to the conclusion that the study of electricity and optics are interconnected and form a single field. His works became the starting point for the research of J. C. Maxwell, whose merit lies in mathematical development M. Faraday's ideas on magnetism and electricity. Maxwell “translated” Faraday's model of field lines into a mathematical formula. The concept of “field of forces” was originally developed as an auxiliary mathematical concept. J.C. Maxwell gave it a physical meaning and began to consider the field as an independent physical reality: “ An electromagnetic field is that part of space that contains and surrounds bodies that are in an electric or magnetic state » . From his research, Maxwell was able to conclude that light waves are electromagnetic waves. The single essence of light and electricity, which M. Faraday suggested in 1845, and J. C. Maxwell theoretically substantiated in 1862, was experimentally confirmed by the German physicist G. Hertz in 1888. After the experiments of G. Hertz, the concept of a field was finally established in physics, not as an auxiliary mathematical construction, but as an objectively existing physical reality. A qualitatively new, unique type of matter was discovered. So, by the end of the 19th century. physics has come to the conclusion that matter exists in two forms: discrete matter and continuous field. As a result of subsequent revolutionary discoveries in physics at the end of the last and beginning of this century, the ideas of classical physics about matter and field as two qualitatively unique types of matter were destroyed. *Megaworld* . Modern science considers the megaworld or space as an interacting and developing system of all celestial bodies. All existing galaxies are included in the system of the highest order - the Metagalaxy . The dimensions of the Metagalaxy are very large: the radius of the cosmological horizon is 15-20 billion light years. Concepts "Universe" And "Metagalaxy"- very similar concepts: they characterize the same object, but in different aspects. Concept "Universe" denotes the entire existing material world; concept "Metagalaxy"- the same world, but from the point of view of its structure - as an ordered system of galaxies. The structure and evolution of the Universe are studied by cosmology . Cosmology as a branch of natural science, it is located at a unique junction of science, religion and philosophy. Cosmological models of the Universe are based on certain ideological premises, and these models themselves have great ideological significance. In classical science there was the so-called steady state theory of the Universe, according to which the Universe has always been almost the same as it is now. Astronomy was static: the movements of planets and comets were studied, stars were described, their classifications were created, which was, of course, very important. But the question of the evolution of the Universe was not raised. Modern cosmological models of the Universe are based on A. Einstein's general theory of relativity, according to which the metric of space and time is determined by the distribution of gravitational masses in the Universe. Its properties as a whole are determined by the average density of matter and other specific physical factors. Einstein's equation of gravity has not one, but many solutions, which explains the existence of many cosmological models of the Universe. The first model was developed by A. Einstein himself in 1917. He rejected the postulates of Newtonian cosmology about the absoluteness and infinity of space and time. In accordance with A. Einstein's cosmological model of the Universe, world space is homogeneous and isotropic, matter is distributed evenly in it on average, and the gravitational attraction of masses is compensated by the universal cosmological repulsion. The existence of the Universe is infinite, i.e. has no beginning or end, and space is limitless, but finite. The universe in A. Einstein’s cosmological model is stationary, infinite in time and limitless in space. In 1922 Russian mathematician and geophysicist A.A Friedman rejected the postulate of classical cosmology about the stationary nature of the Universe and obtained a solution to the Einstein equation, which describes the Universe with “expanding” space. Since the average density of matter in the Universe is unknown, today we do not know in which of these spaces of the Universe we live. In 1927, the Belgian abbot and scientist J. Lemaitre connected the “expansion” of space with data from astronomical observations. Lemaitre introduced the concept of the beginning of the Universe as a singularity (i.e., a superdense state) and the birth of the Universe as the Big Bang. In 1929, American astronomer E.P. Hubble discovered the existence of a strange relationship between the distance and speed of galaxies: all galaxies are moving away from us, and with a speed that increases in proportion to the distance - the galaxy system is expanding. The expansion of the Universe is considered a scientifically established fact. According to the theoretical calculations of J. Lemaître, the radius of the Universe in its original state was 10 -12 cm, which is close in size to the radius of an electron, and its density was 10 96 g/cm 3 . In a singular state, the Universe was a micro-object of negligible size. From the initial singular state, the Universe moved to expansion as a result of the Big Bang. Retrospective calculations determine the age of the Universe at 13-20 billion years. G.A. Gamow suggested that the temperature of the substance was high and fell with the expansion of the Universe. His calculations showed that the Universe in its evolution goes through certain stages, during which the formation of chemical elements and structures occurs. In modern cosmology, for clarity, the initial stage of the evolution of the Universe is divided into “eras” Hadron era. Heavy particles that enter into strong interactions. The era of leptons. Light particles entering into electromagnetic interaction. Photon era. Duration 1 million years. The bulk of the mass - the energy of the Universe - comes from photons. Star era. Occurs 1 million years after the birth of the Universe. During the stellar era, the process of formation of protostars and protogalaxies begins. Then a grandiose picture of the formation of the structure of the Metagalaxy unfolds. In modern cosmology, along with the Big Bang hypothesis, the inflationary model of the Universe, which considers the creation of the Universe, is very popular. The idea of creation has a very complex justification and is associated with quantum cosmology. This model describes the evolution of the Universe starting from the moment 10 -45 s after the start of expansion. Proponents of the inflationary model see a correspondence between the stages of cosmic evolution and the stages of creation of the world described in the book of Genesis in the Bible. In accordance with the inflation hypothesis, cosmic evolution in the early Universe goes through a number of stages. The beginning of the Universe is defined by theoretical physicists as a state of quantum supergravity with a radius of the Universe of 10 -50 cm Inflation stage. As a result of a quantum leap, the Universe passed into a state of excited vacuum and, in the absence of matter and radiation in it, intensively expanded according to an exponential law. During this period, the space and time of the Universe itself was created. During the inflationary stage lasting 10 -34. The Universe inflated from an unimaginably small quantum size of 10 -33 to an unimaginably large 10 1000000 cm, which is many orders of magnitude greater than the size of the observable Universe - 10 28 cm. During this entire initial period there was no matter or radiation in the Universe. Transition from the inflationary stage to the photon stage. The state of false vacuum disintegrated, the released energy went to the birth of heavy particles and antiparticles, which, having annihilated, gave powerful flash radiation (light) that illuminated space. The stage of separation of matter from radiation: the matter remaining after annihilation became transparent to radiation, the contact between matter and radiation disappeared. The radiation separated from matter constitutes the modern relict background, theoretically predicted by G. A. Gamov and experimentally discovered in 1965. Subsequently, the development of the Universe went in the direction from the simplest homogeneous state to the creation of increasingly complex structures - atoms (initially hydrogen atoms), galaxies, stars, planets, the synthesis of heavy elements in the bowels of stars, including those necessary for the creation of life, the emergence of life and as the crown of creation - man. The difference between the stages of the evolution of the Universe in the inflationary model and the Big Bang model concerns only the initial stage of the order of 10 -30 s, then there are no fundamental differences between these models in understanding the stages of cosmic evolution. In the meantime, these models can be calculated on a computer with the help of knowledge and imagination, but the question remains open. The greatest difficulty for scientists arises in explaining the causes of cosmic evolution. If we put aside the particulars, we can distinguish two main concepts that explain the evolution of the Universe: the concept self-organization and concept creationism . For concept self-organization the material Universe is the only reality, and no other reality exists besides it. The evolution of the Universe is described in terms of self-organization: there is a spontaneous ordering of systems in the direction of the formation of increasingly complex structures. Dynamic chaos creates order. Within the framework of the concept creationism, i.e. creation, the evolution of the Universe is associated with implementation of the program, determined by a reality of a higher order than the material world. Proponents of creationism draw attention to the existence in the Universe of a directed nomogen - development from simple systems to increasingly complex and information-intensive ones, during which the conditions for the emergence of life and humans were created. The anthropic principle is used as an additional argument , formulated by the English astrophysicists B. Carr and Riess. Among modern physicists– theorists have supporters of both the concept of self-organization and the concept of creationism. The latter recognize that the development of fundamental theoretical physics makes it an urgent need to develop a unified scientific and technical picture of the world, synthesizing all achievements in the field of knowledge and faith. The Universe at various levels, from conventionally elementary particles to giant superclusters of galaxies, is characterized by structure. Modern structure The Universe is the result of cosmic evolution, during which galaxies were formed from protogalaxies, stars from protostars, and planets from protoplanetary clouds. Metagalaxy- is a collection of star systems - galaxies, and its structure is determined by their distribution in space filled with extremely rarefied intergalactic gas and penetrated by intergalactic rays. According to modern concepts, a metagalaxy is characterized by a cellular (mesh, porous) structure. There are huge volumes of space (on the order of a million cubic megaparsecs) in which galaxies have not yet been discovered. The age of the Metagalaxy is close to the age of the Universe, since the formation of the structure occurs in the period following the separation of matter and radiation. According to modern data, the age of the Metagalaxy is estimated at 15 billion years. Galaxy- a giant system consisting of clusters of stars and nebulae, forming a rather complex configuration in space. Based on their shape, galaxies are conventionally divided into three types: elliptical , spiral , incorrect . Elliptical galaxies– have spatial form ellipsoid with to varying degrees compression, they are the simplest in structure: the distribution of stars uniformly decreases from the center. Spiral galaxies– presented in a spiral shape, including spiral branches. This is the most numerous type of galaxy, which includes our Galaxy - the Milky Way. Irregular galaxies– do not have a distinct form, they lack a central core. Some galaxies are characterized by exceptionally powerful radio emission, exceeding visible radiation. This radio galaxies . The oldest stars, whose age approaches the age of the galaxy, are concentrated in the core of the galaxy. Middle-aged and young stars are located in the galactic disk. Stars and nebulae within the galaxy move in a rather complex way, together with the galaxy they take part in the expansion of the Universe, in addition, they participate in the rotation of the galaxy around its axis. Stars. At the present stage of the evolution of the Universe, the matter in it is predominantly in a stellar state. 97% of the matter in our Galaxy is concentrated in stars, which are giant plasma formations of various sizes, temperatures, and with different characteristics of motion. Many, if not most, other galaxies have "stellar matter" that makes up more than 99.9% of their mass. The age of stars varies over a fairly wide range of values: from 15 billion years, corresponding to the age of the Universe, to hundreds of thousands - the youngest. There are stars that are currently being formed and are in the protostellar stage, i.e. they haven't become real stars yet. The birth of stars occurs in gas-dust nebulae under the influence of gravitational, magnetic and other forces, due to which unstable homogeneities are formed and diffuse matter breaks up into a series of condensations. If such condensations persist long enough, then over time they turn into stars. The main evolution of matter in the Universe took place and is happening in the depths of stars. It is there that the “melting crucible” is located, which determined the chemical evolution of matter in the Universe. At the final stage of evolution, stars turn into inert (“dead”) stars. Stars do not exist in isolation, but form systems. The simplest star systems - the so-called multiple systems consist of two, three, four, five and more stars, revolving around a common center of gravity. Stars are also united into even larger groups - star clusters, which can have a “scattered” or “spherical” structure. Open star clusters number several hundred individual stars, globular clusters number many hundreds of thousands. Associations, or clusters of stars, are also not immutable and eternally existing. After a certain amount of time, estimated in millions of years, they are scattered by the forces of galactic rotation. solar system is a group of celestial bodies, very different in size and physical structure. This group includes: Sun, nine major planets, dozens of planetary satellites, thousands of small planets (asteroids), hundreds of comets and countless meteorite bodies, moving both in swarms and in the form of individual particles. By 1979, 34 satellites and 2000 asteroids were known. All these bodies are united into one system due to the gravitational force of the central body - the Sun. The solar system is an ordered system that has its own structural laws. The unified nature of the solar system is manifested in the fact that all the planets revolve around the sun in the same direction and in almost the same plane. Most of the planets' satellites (their moons) rotate in the same direction and in most cases in the equatorial plane of their planet. The sun, planets, satellites of planets rotate around their axes in the same direction in which they move along their trajectories. The structure of the solar system is also natural: each next planet is approximately twice as far from the Sun as the previous one. The solar system was formed approximately 5 billion years ago, and the Sun is a star of the second (or even later) generation. Thus, the Solar System arose from the waste products of stars of previous generations, which accumulated in gas and dust clouds. This circumstance gives grounds to call the solar system a small part of stardust. Science knows less about the origin of the Solar System and its historical evolution than is necessary to build a theory of planet formation. The first theories of the origin of the solar system were put forward by the German philosopher I. Kant and the French mathematician P. S. Laplace. According to this hypothesis, the system of planets around the Sun was formed as a result of the forces of attraction and repulsion between particles of scattered matter (nebula) located in rotational movement around the Sun. The beginning of the next stage in the development of views on the formation of the Solar system was the hypothesis of the English physicist and astrophysicist J. H. Jeans. He suggested that the Sun once collided with another star, as a result of which a stream of gas was torn out of it, which, condensing, transformed into planets. Modern concepts the origin of the planets of the solar system are based on the fact that it is necessary to take into account not only mechanical forces, but also others, in particular electromagnetic ones. This idea was put forward by the Swedish physicist and astrophysicist H. Alfvén and the English astrophysicist F. Hoyle. In accordance with modern ideas, the original gas cloud from which both the Sun and the planets were formed, consisted of ionized gas subject to the influence of electromagnetic forces. After the Sun was formed from a huge gas cloud through concentration, very long distance small parts of this cloud remained from it. Gravitational force began to attract the remaining gas to the resulting star - the Sun, but its magnetic field stopped the falling gas for different distances- just where the planets are. Gravitational and magnetic forces influenced the concentration and condensation of the falling gas, and as a result, planets were formed. When the largest planets arose, the same process was repeated on a smaller scale, thus creating satellite systems. Theories of the origin of the Solar system are hypothetical in nature, and it is impossible to unambiguously resolve the issue of their reliability at the present stage of scientific development. All existing theories have contradictions and unclear areas. Currently, in the field of fundamental theoretical physics, concepts are being developed according to which the objectively existing world is not limited to the material world perceived by our senses or physical instruments. The authors of these concepts came to the following conclusion: along with material world reality exists higher order, which has a fundamentally different nature compared to the reality of the material world. *Conclusion.* People have long tried to find an explanation for the diversity and weirdness of the world. The study of matter and its structural levels is a necessary condition for the formation of a worldview, regardless of whether it ultimately turns out to be materialistic or idealistic. It is quite obvious that the role of defining the concept of matter, understanding the latter as inexhaustible for construction, is very important. scientific picture world, solving the problem of reality and cognizability of objects and phenomena of the micro, macro and mega worlds. Bibliography: 1. Big Soviet encyclopedia 2. Karpenkov S.Kh. Concepts of modern natural science. M.: 1997 3. Philosophy http://websites.pfu.edu.ru/IDO/ffec/hilos-index.html 4. Vladimirov Yu. S. Fundamental physics and religion. - M.: Archimedes, 1993; 5. Vladimirov Yu. S., Karnaukhov A. V., Kulakov Yu.I. Introduction to the theory of physical structures and binary geometrophysics. - M.: Archimedes, 1993. 6. Tutorial"Concepts of modern natural science" Kuznetsov B.T. From Galileo to Einstein - M.: Nauka, 1966. - P.38. Cm.: Kudryavtsev P.S. Course on the history of physics. - M.: Education, 1974. - P. 179. See: Dubnischeva T.Ya. Decree. Op. – P. 802 – 803. Cm.: Grib A.A. Big Bang: Creation or Origin? /In the book. The relationship between the physical and reliptotic pictures of the world. - Kostroma: Publishing house MIITSAOST, 1996. - P. 153-166. In its formation, the category " matter"(as the substance of the world) went through three stages or the so-called three historical forms of materialism: At the first stage, matter was identified with a specific natural element, with a specific type of substance: water (Thales), air (Anaximenes), fire (Heraclitus), atoms (Democritus). This stage is called the spontaneous materialism of the ancients. The second stage is called mechanistic, metaphysical materialism. It was typical for. Development in the XVII-XVIII centuries. mathematics and mechanics contributed to the study of nature and the enrichment of ideas about matter. In modern European philosophy, matter was endowed with a number of attributive properties that were studied within the framework of classical science of that time (Newtonian mechanics) - mass, extension, inertia, indivisibility, impenetrability, etc. The carriers of these properties were various manifestations of the primary substance (elements, corpuscles, atoms). At this stage, the construction of a mechanistic picture of the world is completed. This picture of the world developed as a result of the scientific revolution of the 16th-17th centuries and took shape in a holistic education by XVIII century and dominated throughout the 19th century. The basis of the mechanistic picture of the world was atom, which the whole world, including man, understood as a collection of a huge number of atoms moving in space and time. The key concept was the concept of movement. However, all the diversity of forms and types of movement in nature was reduced to mechanical movement(to simple movement of bodies AND space). In addition, a certain first impulse located outside the world was assumed to be the movement. Hence knowledge - mechanistic, metaphysical materialism. It should be noted that the first and second stages are characterized by the idea of matter as a substrate, i.e. as the building material from which everything in the world consists. In addition, these stages were closely related to the level of development scientific knowledge of its time. In the 19th century, a number of scientific discoveries were made: - physics penetrates into the microworld; - along with matter, the concept of an electromagnetic field is introduced (Faraday, Maxwell); - the phenomenon of radioactivity is discovered; - the atom ceases to be the final limit of the divisibility of matter; - A. Einstein creates the theory of relativity. All this contributed to the emergence of the belief that matter cannot be identified with matter, with some specific type of it, because Science is constantly developing, and as a result, ideas about the world change. In philosophy, it arose to develop such an idea of matter that would characterize its any forms, types, regardless of whether they are already known or not, and regardless of what specific properties and qualities these forms and types possess. The third stage is the stage of the emergence of materialism. In the dialectical-materialist tradition, concrete scientific and philosophical approaches to understanding matter were finally separated, and in its definition formulated by V.I. Lenin, from the whole variety of properties, the most important one was the property of matter to be an objective reality, i.e. do not depend on . Moreover, in the dialectical-materialist tradition, matter, as an objective reality, covers not only the world, but society, i.e. objective processes in society. Matter is a philosophical category to designate objective reality that exists independently of human consciousness and is reflected by it. The concept of matter is an abstraction. Matter as such does not exist in general, just like man in general, the table in general, i.e. as something sensually perceived, as something placed next to things. Matter exists in concrete, infinitely diverse forms and forms of things, processes, phenomena, states. None of these types, forms and states can be identified with matter, but all and diversity, including their connections and interactions, constitute material reality. At the heart of modern scientific ideas The structure of matter is based on the idea of its complex system-structural organization. Matter is not a continuous homogeneous whole. It is structurally organized, and this structural organization can be found in any of its elements. In addition, the structure of matter is not one-level. It represents a variety of qualitatively unique material forms of varying degrees of complexity. Related Posts Experiments to observe diffraction Determination of body weight by weighing on scales Laboratory work movement of the body in a circle Deviant behavior: what it is, main manifestations and treatment methods Human material needs - examples, features See pages where the term Moral and satisfaction is mentioned Other sections of the site Biology Social science Computer science Examination Bank of works Popular materials History of Russia from Rurik to Putin! The order of performing mathematical operations How to arrange actions Ancestors of modern Indians What was the difference between an estate and a fiefdom? Quantum field theory Quantum field theory for dummies citionhall.ru 2024 Biology Social science Computer science Examination