Social science
Internals and externals. Positive thinking. External or internal? Externals and internals in psychology

Internals and externals. Positive thinking. External or internal? Externals and internals in psychology

My investments from 100% per annum: weekly report.

Locus of control- a person’s tendency to believe that his actions can influence the events that happen to him. Locus of control does not indicate whether these events or consequences are good or bad (from the individual's point of view). Locus of control is neutral with respect to the outcome. Only a sense of cause and effect.

The term “locus of control” was first coined by social psychologist Julian Rotter in his seminal book Social Learning and Clinical Psychology in 1954.

It was only in 1998 that the Russian-speaking society was introduced to the concept of Locus of Control, calling it “localization of control of volitional effort” in the work Volitional Actions // Petrovsky, A. V.; Yaroshevsky, M. G. Psychology. Textbook for universities on pedagogy. specialties. - M.: Academy, 1998. - 500 p.

Very clever? But for management, without understanding this term and the methodology for recognizing the type of employees - no way! I am sure about that!

Everything in life previously seemed abstruse... the multiplication table, for example. But once we figure it out, everything will become very simple.

Locus of control reflects the strength of a person's belief in his own achievements. Achievements can be both positive and negative, again from the point of view of the individual - from your point of view. Locus of control helps a person explain life circumstances and accept them.

If a person doubts himself, his beliefs, then this will have a detrimental effect on self-esteem, which will manifest itself in depression, anxiety, helplessness...

A person’s tendency to attribute performance results to external factors - “external locus of control” - externality - increases a person’s helplessness. Externals They believe that his life and the events that happen to him are influenced by those around him.

A person’s tendency to attribute performance results to internal factors - “internal locus of control” - internality - one’s choice, one’s efforts, one’s positive and negative qualities, the presence or absence of the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities. Internals believe that his actions influence his life and the events that happen to him.

Externals

Externals at work say: “I’ll try...”

Externals in the workflow put in less effort! For what?

Externals are confident that salary increases depend only on the position turn out to be and in what place turn out to be.

Externals are more likely to experience emotional outbursts at work because they have a lower level of tolerance for irritation at work.

Externalizers are more likely to experience negative emotional reactions when colleagues or management put work-related pressure on them.

Internals

Internals are more interested in work that provides opportunities for personal achievement.

Internals believe that promotions and salaries are associated with hard work, achievement and initiative.

Internals are constantly seeking information on ways to modernize processes and products before deciding what to do next.

Internals quickly try to correct a possible mistake at work.

Internals are more trusting and experience possible failures and disappointments more easily.

Internals prefer to work with leaders who allow them to participate in decision making.

Who do you prefer to see as your middle and senior manager – an insecure external person or an internal person with a need for achievement?

Internals will work hard if they know that rewards at work are tied to outstanding skills and excellent job performance. Skill-oriented value – additional reward for acquiring new skills and knowledge. Pay that is focused on job-related skills helps to develop an internal locus of control among employees and. They begin to see the relationship between the level of development of professional skills and the rewards they receive.

Internals prefer to participate in decisions affecting their work. Managers need to involve internal employees in decision making when employee support is needed to implement the decision, or when the decision affects the employee personally. This kind of involvement will save you from confusion with job descriptions!

Internalists need to see a tangible connection between their behavior and results. Therefore, managers can use employee participation in the decision-making process to convince all other employees that hard work and success are rewarded with promotions, salary increases, and increased responsibilities.

Externals	Internals
They care less about their health and well-being.	Active search for information about possible problems health. More precautions to maintain or improve your health (quit smoking, exercise, see your doctor regularly).
More often there are psychological problems: anxiety and depression higher, self-esteem lower, more often mental illness and even suicide.	Vice versa
Less successful adaptation	More successful adaptation
Much more susceptible to social influence.	They not only resist social influence, but also tend to control the behavior of other people.
Less consistent in their behavior	More consistent in your behavior
The time perspective is shortened and eventful.	The time perspective covers a much longer period of time, both in the future and in the past.
Life satisfaction in general is lower.	Higher overall life satisfaction and level of optimism.
They are less satisfied with the past than with the present, but the future seems more promising to them than the present.<Н<Б	P<Н = Б
They are also more satisfied with the present than with the past, but the level of satisfaction with the present coincides with expectations from the future.	P

There is no need to reject or forget information that is undesirable for them, because... all failures are explained by external circumstances. They tend to forget or not perceive information that threatens their self-awareness (MPD - denial and repression). Most people

do not belong to extreme types

“pure” internals and “pure” externals, and is located between these two poles, i.e. Each person has both signs of internality and signs of externality. The only question is the relationship between these signs.

Extreme internality is not a sign of responsible behavior.

· 33 Normal, deviant and pathological adaptation in the concept of A.A. Nalchadzhyan 1. Normal adaptation is an adaptive process of the individual, which leads to its stable adaptation in typical problem situations without pathological changes in its structure and, at the same time, without violations of the norms of the social group in which the individual’s activity takes place. In turn, divided into:

· Normal protective adaptation- begin in non-frustrating problem situations that require the individual to make rational decisions. They are carried out without the participation of known protective mechanisms, that is, with the help of non-defensive adaptive complexes. To achieve adaptation in the context of the emergence of problematic non-frustrating situations, cognitive processes of the individual, processes of goal formation and goal setting, group socio-psychological mechanisms and problem solving, various forms of social compliance (in particular, conformal behavior, but without the involvement of protective mechanisms), processes of communication and information exchange are used. intellectualization of individual life experience, etc.

2. Deviant adaptation - processes of social adaptation of an individual that ensure the satisfaction of the individual’s needs in a given group or social environment, while the expectations of other participants in the social process are not justified by such a command. Divide into:

· non-conformist adaptation - the process of socio-psychological adaptation of a person, thanks to which he overcomes an intra-group problem situation in ways and ways that are unusual for members of this group and, as a result, finds himself in conflicting relationships with the norms of the group and their bearers.

· innovative (innovative, creative) adaptation- a type of human activity or role performance, during and as a result of which a person creates new values, carries out innovations in certain areas of the group, which the group accepts with a positive attitude.

3.Pathological adaptation- This is a socio-psychological process (personal activity in social situations), which is fully or partially carried out with the help of pathological mechanisms and forms of behavior and leads to the formation of pathological character complexes that are part of neurotic and psychotic syndromes.

Two circumstances should be highlighted

· The first of them is that in the process of pathological adaptation such protective mechanisms are used that take the behavior of the individual beyond the limits of normal adaptation and become inadequate responses to emerging problem situations.

· The second circumstance is that each type of neuroses and psychoses has its own characteristic defense mechanisms. This observation should be supplemented with three important clarifications:

a) these leading or most characteristic mechanisms for each neurosis or psychosis are pathological (or better said, pathologized) defense mechanisms. By “pathologized” we mean such protective mechanisms that, in the process of personality development, initially arose as normal, ensuring its normal protective adaptation, but later, under the influence of pathogenic factors (the most difficult and repeated frustrating situations) and, in parallel with the general pathologization of the personality, underwent painful changes and became pathological. All protective adaptive mechanisms and their complexes can be pathologized. For example, the projection mechanism most characteristic of paranoia, the use of which becomes a systematic and involuntarily repeating process in the mental activity of the individual suffering from this disorder, takes on a pathological character, as we will show in more detail in Chapter III;

b) each neurosis or psychosis is characterized by a certain protective-adaptive complex, and not just a separate protective mechanism;

c) finally, our third addition concerns the question of the extent to which a person’s neurotic or psychotic behavior in socio-psychological terms can be considered adaptive.

Universal problems of adaptation in the concept of R. Plutchik and existentialism

Existential idea (by Jarlom) – loneliness, fear of death, freedom-responsibility, meaninglessness.

The problem requires acceptance; if the personality does not solve these problems, then it will not be able to be adaptive.

Problems according to Plutchik:

· The problem of temporality is associated with the limitation of individual life => the problem of timeliness (everything on time); the problem of losing loved ones, familiar surroundings, part of one’s identity (exit - religion, rituals)

· The problem of hierarchy – refers to the vertical dimension of social life; manifests itself in age relationships, gender relationships, relationships between socio-economic classes, etc. (every person has a status even before birth).

· The problem of identity – the search for answers to 2 questions: who am I? Which group do I belong to? (expressed in problems of acceptance, self-acceptance, social contact)

· Territorial problem – the problem of property boundaries (where is mine? Where is someone else’s? etc. => the problem of access to what belongs to another person).

35 Factors in personality formation: basic psychological approaches

1. From the point of view of social psychology, personality formation occurs in the process of socialization, which includes:

· Interiorization - the individual’s assimilation of social experience by entering the social environment

· Exteriorization is the process of active reproduction of an individual’s system of social connections, due to his active activity and active inclusion in the social environment.

2. From the point of view of behaviorism - socialization through learning.

3. Humanistic psychology - socialization through the prism of self-actualization.

4. In psychoanalysis and existential psychology, the concept of “basic needs” is considered, which have a significant impact on the development of personality. The nature of satisfaction of basic needs is an important factor in the formation of personality (satisfaction of the child’s basic needs by parents). The basis is adequacy and timely satisfaction.

General ideas about personality development and formation:

· Personality development occurs throughout life, but the foundation of personality is laid in childhood development

· A decisive role in the formation of personality is played by the child’s relationship with his parents or people replacing them.

· Personal development goes through certain stages

· Personality formation occurs in a complex interaction of internal driving forces and external conditions (interaction with the outside world/people).

37. Concept and criteria of personal maturity

Personal maturity is identified with the formation of the individual (there are some criteria for formation by which one can judge the formation), with mental health and non-neuroticism.

Personal maturity is better understood as a process rather than a result. We can talk about personal maturity as a result in the sense of the formation in the individual of certain abilities or characteristics that contribute to the most complete and adequate formation of the personality, its self-actualization.

Components of a mature personality:

· Emotional maturity – the ability to recognize and adequately express one’s emotions.

In psychoanalysis, emotional maturity is ego strength, the ability to accept and acknowledge what a person experiences; emotional maturity can also be understood as a certain level of self-regulation. According to Alpord, emotional maturity includes the ability to manage one’s emotional states, a positive self-attitude, and tolerance for disappointments, failures, and one’s own shortcomings.

· Social maturity – the ability to establish and maintain adequate social relationships, as well as the ability to leave relationships when necessary.

· Worldview maturity – the formation and consistency of basic life values and positions, as well as the presence of a hierarchy of values and motives.

Allpord: an integral philosophy of life, the ability to clearly, systematically and consistently manage what is significant in one’s life.

Maslow: a clear definition of what is essential from what is not in this world.

Tolerance for other worldviews.

· Motivational maturity – the ability to understand the true motives of one’s behavior

· Responsibility – the ability to make an informed choice, predict and accept its consequences (the ability to separate one’s responsibility from someone else’s).

· Autonomy and independence in thinking, behavior and assessments - internal locus of control, high degree of self-government, non-conformity, creativity, freedom from stereotypes of perception and thinking.

· Realism and freshness of perception of experience and claims - a more effective perception of reality.

· Sense of humor – the ability to laugh at oneself while still appreciating oneself.

38 The problem of norm and pathology of personality. Main types of norm.

Three types of norms:

1. Average statistical norm - normal will be everything that will manifest itself in people most often and most reliably in a given population. Abnormality is deviation to either side.

2. Ideal (social) norm - everything that is encouraged or not condemned in a given society (may be different in different societies) will be normal.

Meets standards 75%

25% deviate from the norm to one degree or another

3. Functional norm - everything that is natural for the functioning of a given system will be normal.

For a person, the functional norm is everything that helps or does not interfere with her feeling “good”, and also does not interfere with others feeling “good”.

Mental health:

· Correspondence to subjective images of the reality reflected by the object.

· Correspondence between the nature of the reaction to external stimuli and the meaning of life events.

· Age-appropriate level of emotional and intellectual maturity.

· Adaptability in microsocial relationships.

· The ability to manage one’s own behavior, plan one’s life wisely, set goals, and maintain activity in achieving them.

40 Personality pathology: neurosis, psychopathy, psychosis.

Three main forms of pathologies:

1. Psychosis is a deep mental disorder. Manifests:

· Violation of the reflection of the real world (hallucinations, paranoia, ignoring reality, etc.)

· Impaired ability to understand the world (profound forms of autism, depression, cognitive impairment)

Changes in behavior (aggression, apathy, excitability, obsession)

· Darkening of consciousness

· Multiple personality

2. Psychopathy is a pathology of a person’s character, in which a person has pronounced psychological properties that interfere with his social adaptation in society. Social disadaptation, but not suffering from it.

Types of psychopathy:

3. Neurosis – based on an unproductively resolved intrapersonal conflict. Manifestations:

· Emotional disorder, increased vulnerability, tearfulness, irritability

· Psychophysiological disorders – sleep disorders, digestion disorders, autonomic disorders, etc.

· Psychosomatic syndromes

· Painful experiences, failures, feelings of loneliness, loss, dissatisfaction, fear.

Types of neuroses:

· Neurostinia – conflict between capabilities and needs (conflict of self-affirmation); accompanied by energy exhaustion, irritability, and exhaustion of emotions.

· Phobic neurosis – one vivid fear or a large number of phobias, an internal conflict between the need for security and the inability to protect oneself and preserve one’s “I” from external/internal threats.

· Neurosis of obsessive states – accompanied by obsessive thoughts, actions, indecision, suspiciousness (a conflict of social desirability, between what is desired and what is received)

· Hysterical neurosis – accompanied by capriciousness, egocentrism, fixation of the attention of others to their conditions and illnesses (conflict of recognition, subjectively inflated desires and possibilities, conflict with their real satisfaction).

344. Bilateral functioning of adaptive mechanisms(Nalchadzhyan)

Until now we have talked mainly about the adaptation of the individual to external, objective social situations. It should, however, be borne in mind that many adaptive mechanisms can have two or more “vectors” of functioning. Based on this criterion, two more types of adaptation can be distinguished:

1. External adaptation is an adaptive process through which a person adapts to external, objective problem situations. External adaptation can be with the preservation of the problem situation or with its elimination, etc.

2. Internal adaptation (or co-adaptation), which has a number of varieties:

a) internal adaptation aimed at resolving internal conflicts and other intrapsychic problems of the individual;

b) internal structural adaptation in the narrow sense is the process of coordinating any adaptive mechanism with those already formed adaptive mechanisms with which it forms a complex.

This is also the process of formation of coordination and correlations of a certain adaptive complex with other, already formed stable adaptive complexes;

c) internal structural adaptation in a broad sense: adaptation of an adaptive mechanism or complex to the entire structure of the personality.

The integral structure of the personality may resist the inclusion of new adaptive mechanisms or complexes as alien or, on the contrary, may be very “receptive” to other mechanisms and complexes. This leads to selective learning of new adaptive mechanisms, complexes or strategies, and in some cases to their independent invention.

5. Completeness and stability of adaptation

a) temporary situational adaptation, which can easily turn into a state of temporary situational maladjustment both due to intrapsychic changes (for example, the actualization of new needs or attitudes) and changes in certain aspects of the situation;

b) stable situational adaptation, i.e. reliable long-term adaptation only in certain typical, repeating situations in which the individual strives to be as often as possible;

c) general adaptability, which, of course, is never complete. It, in our opinion, can rather be considered as the potential ability to adapt in a wide range of typical social situations that are most often created in a given social environment at a given historical time.

This classification of adaptation types can be used to create some criteria for the socio-psychological maturity of an individual. In particular, it can be argued that possessing a potential and actual ability to achieve general and flexible, creative adaptability is one of the criteria for the mental maturity and health of an adult personality.

43.
Personality structure

Personality consists of three main systems: Id, Ego and Super-Ego. * Although each of these areas of personality has its own functions, properties, components, principles of action, dynamics and mechanisms, they interact so closely that it is difficult and even impossible to disentangle their lines influences and weigh their relative contributions to human behavior. Behavior almost always appears as a product of the interaction of these three systems; It is extremely rare that one of them functions without the other two.

*English translations from German and English-language psychoanalytic literature use the terms id, ego, and superego. – Editor's note.

It is the original system of the personality: it is the matrix in which the Ego and the Super-Ego are subsequently differentiated. It includes everything mental that is innate and present at birth, including instincts. It is a reservoir of psychic energy and provides energy for the other two systems. It is closely connected with bodily processes, from where it draws its energy. Freud called the id "true psychic reality" because it reflects the inner world of subjective experiences and is unaware of objective reality. (For a discussion of Ono, see Schur, 1966).

When the energy increases, It cannot withstand it, which is experienced as an uncomfortable state of tension. Therefore, when the body's tension level increases - either as a result of external stimulation or internal arousal - It acts in such a way as to immediately relieve the tension and return the body to a comfortable constant and low energy level. The principle of tension reduction, on the basis of which the It operates, is called the principle of pleasure.

In order to fulfill its task - to avoid pain, to gain pleasure - It has two processes. This is a reflex action and a primary process. Reflex actions are innate automatic reactions such as sneezing and blinking; they usually relieve tension immediately. The body is equipped with a number of such reflexes in order to cope with relatively simple forms of arousal. The primary process involves a more complex reaction. It tries to release energy by creating an image of the object, which will cause the energy to move. For example, the primary process will give a hungry person a mental image of food. A hallucinatory experience in which a desired object is represented as a memory image is called wish fulfillment. The best example of a primary process in a healthy person is the dream, which, according to Freud, always represents the fulfillment or attempted fulfillment of a wish. The hallucinations and visions of psychotics are also examples of the primary process. Autistic thinking is brightly colored by the action of the primary process. These wish-fulfilling mental images are the only reality known to the id.

Obviously, the primary process itself is not capable of relieving tension. A hungry person cannot eat the image of food. Consequently, a new, secondary mental process develops, and with its appearance, the second personality system begins to take shape - the Self.

I appears due to the fact that the needs of the organism require appropriate interactions with the world of objective reality. A hungry person must search, find and eat food before the tension of hunger is reduced. This means that a person must learn to distinguish between the image of food that exists in memory and the actual perception of food that exists in the external world. When this differentiation is accomplished, it is necessary to transform the image into perception, which is carried out as determining the location of food in the environment. In other words, a person correlates the image of food existing in memory with the sight or smell of food coming through the senses. The main difference between It and I is that It knows only subjective reality, while I distinguishes between internal and external.

The Self is said to obey the reality principle and operate through a secondary process. The purpose of the reality principle is to prevent tension from discharging until an object suitable for satisfaction is found. The reality principle temporarily suspends the action of the pleasure principle, although, ultimately, when the desired object is discovered and the tension is reduced, it is the pleasure principle that is “served.” The reality principle is concerned with the question of the truth or falsity of an experience—that is, whether it has an external existence—while the pleasure principle is concerned only with whether an experience produces pain or vice versa.

The secondary process is realistic thinking. Through the secondary process, the self formulates a plan to satisfy needs and then tests it—usually with some action—to see if it works. A hungry person thinks about where he can find food, and then starts looking for it there. This is called a reality check. To play its role satisfactorily, the ego controls all cognitive and intellectual functions; these higher mental processes serve the secondary process.

The ego is called the executive organ of the personality, since it opens the door to action, selects from the environment what action should correspond to, and decides which instincts and how they should be satisfied. In carrying out these extremely important executive functions, the ego is forced to try to integrate the often contradictory commands emanating from the id, the superego and the external world. This is not an easy task, often keeping the Self on its toes.

However, it should be borne in mind that the Self, this organized part of the It, appears in order to follow the purposes of the It and not to frustrate them, and that all its strength is drawn from the It. The I does not have an existence separate from the It, and in an absolute sense is always dependent on it. Its main role is to be a mediator between the instinctive demands of the body and environmental conditions; its highest goal is to keep the organism alive and to see the species reproduce.

Superego

The third and last developing personality system is the Super-ego. It is an internal representation of the traditional values and ideals of society as they are interpreted for the child by the parents and forcibly instilled through rewards and punishments inflicted on the child. The super-ego is the moral force of the personality, it is an ideal rather than a reality, and serves more for improvement than for pleasure. Its main task is to evaluate the rightness or wrongness of something based on the moral standards sanctioned by society.

The superego, as the accompanying internalized moral arbiter, develops in response to rewards and punishments coming from parents. To receive rewards and avoid punishment, the child learns to structure his behavior in accordance with the requirements of his parents. What is considered wrong and for which the child is punished is incorporated into conscience - one of the subsystems of the Super-ego. What they approve of and for which they reward the child is included in his ideal self - another subsystem of the super-ego. The mechanism of both processes is called introjection.

The child accepts, or introjects, the moral standards of the parents. Conscience punishes a person, making him feel guilty; the ideal Self rewards him, filling him with pride. With the formation of the Super-I, self-control takes the place of parental control.

The main functions of self-control: 1) prevent impulses of the id, in particular, impulses of a sexual and aggressive nature, because their manifestations are condemned by society; 2) “persuade” I to change realistic goals to moral ones and 3) fight for perfection. Thus, the Super-Ego is in opposition to the Id and to the Ego and tries to build the world in its own image. However, the Super-Ego is like the Id in its irrationality and like the Ego in its desire to control instincts.* Unlike the Ego, the Super-Ego does not simply delay the satisfaction of instinctual needs: it constantly blocks them. (Analysis of the superego given by Turiell, 1967).

* Freud's original term is translated as drive, but translations from English traditionally use the calque "instinct", which corresponds to that accepted in English-language psychoanalytic literature.

In conclusion of this brief consideration, it should be said that the Id, Ego and Super-Ego should not be considered as some kind of little men who control our personality. These are nothing more than names for various mental processes that obey systemic principles. Under normal circumstances, these principles do not contradict or cancel each other out. On the contrary, they work as a single team under the leadership of the Self. The personality normally functions as a single whole, and not as something tripartite. In a very general sense, the It can be considered as a biological component of personality, the Self as a psychological component, and the Super-Ego as a social component.

Concept of personality by A.F. Lazursky

The significance of this concept is that for the first time the position was put forward about the relationships of the individual, which represent the core of personality. Its special significance lies in the fact that the idea of personality relationships became the starting point for many domestic psychologists, primarily representatives of the Leningrad-St. Petersburg school of psychologists.

Views A. F. Lazursky on the nature and structure of personality were formed under the direct influence of ideas V.M. Bekhterev at the time when he worked under his leadership at the Psychoneurological Institute.

According to V. M. Bekhterev, “a personality is, as it were, two closely related sets of traces, one of which is more closely connected with the organic, and the other with the social sphere.” Considering the nature of the relationship between them, V. M. Bekhterev noted that “the social sphere, developing on organic soil, expands it depending on the social conditions of life to the extent that organic influences are suppressed by past experience of social relations and social influences.” In general, in the structure of personality, V. M. Bekhterev emphasizes the role of the social sphere, which “is a unifying link and the causative agent of all traces of psychoreflexes that arise on the basis of social life and revive certain organic reactions.”

A comparison of the concept of A.F. Lazursky with the ideas of V.M. Bekhterev suggests that the latter became for A.F. Lazursky the fundamental conceptual provisions that received theoretical and empirical development in the very concept of personality.

According to A.F. Lazursky the main task of the individual is adaptation (adaptation) to the environment, which is understood in the broadest sense (nature, things, people, human relationships, ideas, aesthetic, moral, religious values, etc.). The measure (degree) of activity of a person’s adaptation to the environment can be different, which is reflected in three mental levels - lower, middle and higher. In fact, these levels reflect the process of human mental development.

Personality in the view of A.F. Lazursky is unity of two psychological mechanisms. On the one hand, this endopsyche- an internal mechanism of the human psyche. The endopsyche reveals itself in such basic mental functions as attention, memory, imagination and thinking, the ability to exert volition, emotionality, impulsiveness, i.e., in temperament, mental talent, and finally, character.

According to A.F. Lazurny, endotraits are mainly congenital. However, he does not consider them absolutely innate. In his opinion, the endopsyche constitutes the core of the human personality, its main basis.

Another significant aspect of personality is exopsyche, the content of which is determined by the attitude of the individual to external objects and the environment. Exopsychic manifestations always reflect the external conditions surrounding a person. Both of these parts are interconnected and influence each other. For example, a developed imagination, conditioning abilities for creative activity, high sensitivity and excitability - all this presupposes the pursuit of art. The traits mentioned here are closely related to each other, and significant development of one inevitably entails the development of the others. The same applies to the exocomplex of traits, when external living conditions seem to dictate appropriate behavior.

We have already said above that the process of personality adaptation can be more or less successful. In this regard, A.F. Lazursky identifies three mental levels.

Before moving on to characterizing these levels, a few words about the signs that characterize an increase in mental level.

1. Personal wealth, which denotes the total amount of mental production, manifested externally, i.e., by the abundance, diversity and complexity (or vice versa, primitiveness, poverty, monotony) of individual mental manifestations.

2. Strength, brightness, intensity of individual mental manifestations. The stronger they are, the more opportunities there are to increase the mental level.

3. Consciousness and ideological nature of mental manifestations. The higher a person’s spiritual organization, the richer and more intense his spiritual life he lives. As a result, a person develops a system of principles - moral, social, etc.

4. Coordination of mental elements, which in their totality constitute the human personality. The higher the tendency to coordinate and integrate these elements, the higher the level of mental development.

Lowest level characterizes the maximum influence of the external environment on the human psyche. The environment, as it were, subjugates such a person to itself, regardless of his endo-peculiarities. Hence the contradiction between a person’s capabilities and the professional skills he has acquired. Therefore, the person is unable to give even that little that he could with more independent and independent behavior.

Average level implies a greater opportunity to adapt to the environment and find one’s place in it. More conscious, with greater efficiency and initiative, they choose activities that suit their inclinations and inclinations. They can be called adapted.

On the highest level mental development, the process of adaptation is complicated by the fact that significant tension, the intensity of mental life, forces not only to adapt to the environment, but also gives rise to the desire to remake, modify it, in accordance with one’s own drives and needs. In other words, here we can rather encounter the process of creativity.

So, the lowest level produces people who are insufficiently or poorly adapted, the middle - those who are adapted, and the highest - those who are adaptable.

The combined interaction of two personality characteristics - from the side of his belonging to one or another level of mental development, on the one hand, and the meaningful psychological characteristics of the personality within each level, on the other, allowed A. F. Lazursky to build a specific heuristic typology, which became the basis for subsequent empirical research .

At the lowest level of mental development, the division was made on the basis of identifying the predominant psychophysiological functions (typology within the endopsychic complex): rational, affective - “moving”, “sensual”, “dreamers” and active - energetic, submissively active and stubborn.

At the average level of mental development, the division took place along psychosocial complexes corresponding to the endo- and exopsyche. In addition, A.F. Lazursky divided all pure types of the average level into two large groups, depending on the predominance of abstract-idealistic or practical-realistic tendencies in them: impractical, realist theorists - scientists, artists, religious contemplatives and practical realists – lovers of humanity (altruists), social activists, authorities, business executives.

At the highest level of the psychic level, thanks to spiritual wealth, consciousness, and coordination of mental experiences, the exopsyche reaches its highest development, and the endopsyche constitutes its natural basis. Therefore, the division proceeds according to exopsychic categories, or more precisely, according to the most important universal human ideals and their characterological varieties. The most important among them, according to A.F. Lazursky, are: altruism, knowledge, beauty, religion, society, external activity, system, power.

We all approach life differently. Some as a fun adventure or an exciting journey, others as a heavy burden and struggle with circumstances.

Some people believe in luck, while others do not. Scientists even came up with corresponding names: externals and internals. Moreover, studies have confirmed that those who are confident in their lucky star are much more likely to experience disappointment, suffering from the blows of fate. Why does this happen?

After all, it seems that the philosophy of positive thinking, on the contrary, convinces us that faith in success and optimism is an indispensable condition for the fulfillment of our desires. Where's the catch? Let's try to figure it out.

You've probably heard the advice of positive thinking trainers more than once: give up luck, and success will immediately come to you!

This is where the problem lies: many people confuse the concepts of luck and success. Yes, they are almost identical, and even in dictionaries you will not find differences (for example, S.I. Ozhegov’s dictionary replaces one concept with another), but if you think about it, luck is a result that is more dependent on a random combination of circumstances, as they say, luck. Success is a positive outcome of any business, which is often associated not only with fortunate circumstances, but also with hard work. That is why people who are independent of the “zigzags of fate” often find themselves in a more advantageous position.

The philosophy of positive thinking teaches how to achieve success, but not through blind faith in the favor of fortune.

Externals are people who are accustomed to relying on the mercy of fate, as they say, at random; they believe more in the successful arrangement of the stars than in their own strengths. Despite the fact that representatives of this group most often choose the philosophy of positive thinking, this, as a rule, does not bring results.

Internals are people who rely only on their own strength. They will not sit and calmly wait until the crane falls into their hands, but will try with all their might to catch their tit.

And although, as experts say, it is more profitable to be an internal, the increased demands on oneself characteristic of people in this group have their costs: chronic fatigue syndrome, irritability, nervousness, and in case of failure, often a painful feeling of guilt. They are advised to remember the proverb more often: “No matter what happens, everything happens for the better.”

Do you want to know who you are: external or internal? This test was developed by the famous psychotherapist Andrei Kurpatov. You only need to select one statement for each item.

All failures are due to bad luck. (E)
Our failures come from our mistakes. (AND)
Deserved recognition will come to a person sooner or later. (AND)
In most cases, a person’s merits go unrewarded. (E)
Unfortunately, some people will always treat you poorly. (E)
People's bad attitudes are the result of your inability to get along with them. (AND)
A good specialist is not afraid of any test. (AND)
Even an experienced specialist will not be able to withstand testing with passion. (E)
I make plans that I can implement. (AND)
I never make long-term plans, because it is unknown how events will turn out. (E)
People don't even realize how dependent their lives are on chance. (E)
Luck is an invention of people; it does not exist in nature. (AND)
Successes are always balanced by troubles. (E)
Troubles are the result of laziness and ignorance. (AND)
Sometimes I cannot influence the events that happen. (E)
My life is in my hands! (AND)
Sometimes I act on the dictates of my intuition. (E)
I always think through everything down to the last detail (I)
Those who talk about luck and the machinations of fate are simply trying to relieve themselves of responsibility. (AND)
What is supposed to happen always happens. (E)

Count how many answers you have with the letter “I” and how many with the letter “E”, and now subtract the second from the first number.
If “+2” or more, you are internal, that is, you are used to controlling your own destiny.
If “-2” or less, you are an externalist, that is, you are sure that your life depends to a greater extent on fortune.

As a complement to interviews to evaluate candidates for manager position The “Locus of Personality Control” test is suitable Julian Rotter. In Russian practice, a test for the level of subjective control (USC Test) is used. This test allows you to see whether a person tends to take responsibility for his successes and failures or whether he prefers to blame the environment and unfavorable environment for his failures.

In interpreting the results, terms such as “internal” and “external” personality are used. “Internals” believe that everything depends on themselves - their knowledge and skills, character traits, and chosen line of behavior. “Externals,” on the other hand, attach special importance to circumstances, environment and environment; in case of failures, they always look for those to blame.

Based on the results of the USC test, a person can be assessed according to seven criteria (scales), but for assessing candidates for the position of manager, four of them are the most informative, which assess the level of internality or externality in the field of industrial relations, interpersonal relations, as well as in the field of achievements and failures.

In management psychology, many researchers have studied the behavior of internal and external personalities. They identified the most striking features that significantly influence professional activity.

An internal locus of control is characteristic of self-confident people who are balanced, well-disposed and easily find contact with colleagues and managers. At the same time, they are independent, resist manipulation and are not inclined to suppress others. Internal leaders can manage in a directive style without turning it into tyranny. Internals are effective in work where it is necessary to take initiative, be able to take risks and take responsibility. They are focused on achieving success, willingly take on complex tasks and make great efforts to develop themselves and improve their skills. In case of failures, they deeply experience their mistakes, analyze their mistakes and independently look for ways out of problems and conflicts, because they take responsibility for the current situation.

People with an external locus of control are distinguished by the fact that they are convinced that their failures are the result of the negative influence of other people, accidents, or bad luck. From such managers you can hear excuses in the style: “there is no one to work with, there are no qualified personnel at all”, “what can I do - this is the situation on the market, competitors”, “it was a decision of senior management”, etc. Externals work more effectively under supervision and control, performing tasks assigned by someone else.

Surely you have met in your practice candidates for managerial vacancies who, during interviews, often mention their connections and big names of companies and present stacks of recommendations. This is one of the manifestations of an external locus of control - such people try to give themselves more weight in the eyes of others due to external factors, including such as acquaintance with influential people. Since externals are characterized by conformist behavior, they are often promoted to leadership positions due to respect for rank and high “loyalty.”

External managers have increased anxiety and tend to blame others for their problems. To maintain their high self-esteem, externalizing managers try to surround themselves with subordinates who are not inclined to argue or criticize them. This weakness is easy to manipulate, therefore, with such a manager, the chances of advancement are no longer with the best specialists, but with “diplomats” who are skilled in communication.

Externals blame others for any of their mistakes. They cannot adequately evaluate their actions and abilities, so they have no desire to develop. Quite often among them there are those who underestimate the importance of training, reject new approaches and theory, “which only harms practice.”

The use of the USC test not only allows one to identify the characteristics of a candidate’s behavior, the style of relationships with future colleagues, his reaction to problems and conflicts, but also indirectly determines how adequately he is able to assess his abilities. And this, as we see, is a very important factor in the selection of candidates for leadership positions.

In the modern world, there are two types of people - those who rely on themselves, and those who place responsibility on external factors. Scientifically speaking, people who attribute their successes and failures to internal factors have an internal locus of control, while adherents of the opposite position, who see the main reason for what is happening in their lives in external circumstances, other people and fate, have an external one. ) locus of control. Both of these life positions occur frequently and are usually easily observed in behavior and communication. A person’s ideas about what determines significant (and not only) events in his life have a great influence on the formation of his personality and worldview.

Behavior, motivation, conformity, nonconformity, social skills, ability to socialize and communicate can all be highly dependent on locus of control.

"Means no luck!"

Externals. These people are convinced that not everything in life depends on them. They usually believe in the existence of some kind of order, fate, evil fate, God, space, chance (and other external factors) that influence their lives.

Externals are usually focused on society - they easily make new acquaintances, establish social contacts, are active, know how to maintain subordination, are good subordinates and performers, are able to adapt to changes in external circumstances, know how to work in a team, are flexible in communication, passionate and easy-going. Another good bonus is the fact that they accept failures quite easily, because externalities shift responsibility for the origin of the latter onto other people and circumstances.

The main disadvantage of people with an external locus of control is that they are highly dependent on public opinion and other external factors. The consequence of this is unstable self-esteem, which can fluctuate greatly under the influence of the opinions of others. To bolster self-esteem and gain approval from other people, they often resort to conforming behavior. The main danger is that by agreeing with others, externals can go against their desires, sometimes without even realizing their essence. People with an external locus of control find it difficult to work alone, since constant feedback is important to them, they do not have enough internal motivation, and they are often afraid to take initiative.

Externals are anxious and sensitive, but being oriented toward the outside world helps them understand others, show empathy, and have a keen sense of changes occurring around them.

In existential psychology, there is a defense mechanism “faith in the ultimate savior”, through which a person is protected from the anxiety of death. He thinks that there is someone (something) that will protect him from death, as a result of which he behaves passively in relation to the world (passively lives life), excluding the experience of his own strength. To the extreme degree of manifestation, such a mechanism is characteristic of victims, addicts, and people with masochistic manifestations. This strongly resonates with extreme forms of external locus of control.

“Man is the creator of his own destiny”

Internals. These people usually rely on themselves for everything. They are independent, inquisitive, well aware of their needs and desires, diligent, success-oriented and result-oriented, self-critical, independent, nonconformists, with more stable and adequate self-esteem. Internals strive for constant development of personal qualities and abilities. Increasing competence and expanding knowledge are among the interests of people with an internal locus of control; they love to learn, strive to achieve power and control over the situation and environment.

At the same time, internals are quite rigid and adapt to external changes much worse than externals. By taking responsibility for everything that happens, they greatly risk their mental and, sometimes, physical health. Attempts to control everything around and high expectations are very draining; any failure can cause a strong blow to self-esteem and mental state, which can result in psychosomatic disorders.

“Belief in one’s own exclusivity” is a mechanism that protects internals from death anxiety, from the point of view of existential psychology. Such people believe that they are special and death is something that happens to others. Thus, they deny existence and show distrust of the world around them, neglecting possible dangers, which can also interfere with the active living of their own lives.

So who is to blame?

Locus of control is an important characteristic of a person that determines his behavior and worldview. The perception of the world is formed in childhood, but can be adjusted throughout life. It is very important to find a middle ground, and not to forget that responsibility for our own lives lies with each of us, but there are also external circumstances that can influence it, and the question “Who is to blame?” It is not always possible to answer unambiguously.