The main merit of G. Galileo to astronomy lies not even in his discoveries, but in the fact that he gave this science a working instrument - the telescope. Some historians (in particular, N. Budur) call G. Galileo a plagiarist who appropriated the invention of the Dutchman I. Lippershney. The accusation is unfair: G. Galileo knew about the Dutch “magic trumpet” only from the Venetian envoy, who did not report on the design of the device.

G. Galileo himself guessed about the structure of the pipe and designed it. In addition, I. Lippershney’s telescope provided a threefold magnification; this was not enough for astronomical observations. G. Galileo managed to achieve an increase of 34.6 times. With such a telescope it was possible to observe celestial bodies.

With the help of his invention, the astronomer saw the Sun and guessed from their movement that the Sun was rotating. He observed the phases of Venus, saw the mountains on the Moon and their shadows, from which he calculated the height of the mountains.

G. Galileo's telescope made it possible to see the four largest satellites of Jupiter. G. Galileo named them Medicean stars in honor of his patron Ferdinand de Medici, Duke of Tuscany. Subsequently they were given others: Callisto, Ganymede, Io and Europa. The significance of this discovery for the era of G. Galileo is difficult to overestimate. There was a struggle between supporters of geocentrism and heliocentrism. The discovery of celestial bodies revolving not around the Earth, but around another object, was a serious argument in favor of the theory of N. Copernicus.

Other sciences

Physics in the modern sense begins with the works of G. Galileo. He is the founder of the scientific method, combining experiment and rational understanding.

This is how he studied, for example, the free fall of bodies. The researcher found that the body's weight did not affect its free fall. Along with the laws of free fall, body motion on an inclined plane, inertia, constant period of oscillation, addition of movements. Many of G. Galileo's ideas were subsequently developed by I. Newton.

In mathematics, the scientist made a significant contribution to the development of probability theory, and also laid the foundations of set theory, formulating the “Galileo's paradox”: there are as many natural numbers as there are their squares, although most of the numbers are not squares.

Inventions

The telescope is not the only device designed by G. Galileo.

This scientist is the first, however, to lack a scale, as well as hydrostatic balances. The proportional compass, invented by G. Galileo, is still used in drawing. G. Galileo also designed a microscope. It did not provide high magnification, but was suitable for studying insects.

The influence exerted by G. Galileo's discoveries on the further development of science was truly fateful. And A. Einstein was right when he called G. Galileo “the father of modern science.”

Sources:

• Galileo. Discoveries

The name Galileo Galilei is known not only to scientists, but also to many ordinary schoolchildren. The great Italian physicist, scientist, astronomer and mechanic, as well as philologist and poet, spent his entire life fighting against scholasticism and said that the basis of knowledge is experience.

Galileo was born on February 15, 1564 in the Italian city of Pisa. When the baby grows up and becomes a guy with a higher education, he will present the world with a telescope with the possibility of 32x magnification. Galileo Galilei discovered spots on the Sun and mountains on the Moon, phases on Venus and four moons of Jupiter.

Such great discoveries were made thanks to the scientist’s ability to observe and draw conclusions from everything he saw. The maestro laid the foundations of the current theory of relativity. Galileo thermoscope, which became the prototype of the thermometer. But Galileo's greatest discovery lies in the heliocentric system of the world he put forward. This system assumed the movement of the Earth. Before this discovery, people adhered to the point of view that the planet Earth is motionless and it is around it that all other luminaries rotate.

Because of his scientific research, the scientist was subjected to the Inquisition. The Catholic Church called thoughts about the movement of planet Earth a heretical delusion that contradicts the Holy Scriptures. However, the degree of his guilt was not so serious as to burn the scientist at the stake. Galileo was sentenced to imprisonment. Only in modern times was he acquitted by Pope John Paul II.

In January 1642, the world lost Galileo Galilei. He was 78 years old, and his merits were not even honored so that the scientist was buried with honors. Galileo Galilei is a scientist who made the modern world much more perfect.

The scientific activity of Galileo Galilei is considered the beginning of the existence of physics as a science in the modern understanding of the word. In addition to his fundamental discoveries, this great scientist invented and designed many applied instruments.

Fundamental principles and laws of motion

Galileo's main discoveries are considered to be two basic principles of mechanics; they had a significant impact not only on the development of mechanics, but also physics in general. The first of them is the principle of constancy of the acceleration of gravity, the second is the principle of relativity for uniform and linear motion.

In addition to these two principles, Galileo Galilei discovered the laws of constant period of oscillation and addition of motions, inertia and free fall. He discovered the most important patterns in the movement of bodies thrown at an angle, as well as when they move along an inclined plane.

In 1638, Galileo's book Discourses and Mathematical Proofs was published, in which he presented his thoughts regarding the laws of motion in a mathematical and academic form. The range of problems discussed in the book was very wide - from statics problems to the study of the resistance of materials and the laws of motion of a pendulum.

Invention of instruments and astronomical discoveries

In 1609, Galileo created a device that was an analogue of the modern telescope; it was based on an optical one, which involved convex and concave lenses. Using this device, the scientist observed the night sky. Subsequently, Galileo made a full-fledged telescope for that time from this device.

Galileo's observations revolutionized the understanding of space that existed at that time. He discovered that the Moon is covered with mountains and depressions, before which it was considered smooth, discovered the phases of Venus and sunspots, indicated that the Milky Way consists of stars, and Jupiter is surrounded by four satellites.

Galileo's astronomical discoveries, his conclusions and justifications resolved the dispute between supporters of the teachings of Copernicus and the followers of Aristotle and Ptolemy. He presented obvious arguments showing that the Ptolemaic system was erroneous.

In 1610, the scientist developed an inverse version of the telescope - a microscope; he simply changed the distance between the lenses in the telescope he had already created. Back in 1592, Galileo designed a thermoscope - an analogue of the modern thermometer, and after that he invented many important applied instruments.

Municipal educational institution "Verkhne-Ivolginskaya secondary school"

Abstract on the topic: “The significance of Galileo’s discoveries”

Completed by: Radnaev Vyacheslav

11th grade student

Checked by: Radnaeva Zh.R.

Physics and mathematics teacher

from Verkhnyaya Ivolga 2014.

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………..1p.

Galileo's discoveries in the field of astronomy………………………………………….2p.

Other discoveries of Galileo…………………………………………………………………...3pp.

Theory of relativity………………………………………………………………………………… 4-6pp.

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………7-8pp.

Introduction.

The founder of the theory of relativity is rightfully considered the greatItalian scientist Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), who was the first toformulated with mathematical precision the most important principles of the mechanical world.

Galileo was born into the family of an impoverished nobleman in the city of Pisa, near Florence. Galileo made the first of his most important discoveries in the field of mechanics. Aristotle taught that heavy objects fall at a faster rate than light ones, and generations of scientists accepted this statement, recognizing the authority of the Greek philosopher. However, Galileo decided to test this thesis and, after conducting several experiments, he soon discovered that Aristotle was wrong. In fact, heavy and light objects fall at the same speed, except when their movement is slowed down by air friction. Having reached this conclusion, Galileo went further. He carefully measured the distance that a falling object travels in a given period of time, and found that the path of a falling object is proportional to the square of the time during which the fall occurred. This discovery (constant acceleration factor) is significant in itself. Even more important is that Galileo was able to summarize the results of a whole series of experiments in a mathematical formula. The widespread use of mathematical formulas and mathematical methods is the most important characteristic feature of modern science. Another important achievement of Galileo was the discovery of the law of inertia. People originally believed that a moving object would have a natural tendency to slow down unless forces were applied to it to keep it moving. However, Galileo's experiments showed that this general idea was erroneous. If forces that retard motion, such as friction, could be eliminated, a falling object would tend to continue moving indefinitely. This important principle, which Newton restated and incorporated into his own system as the first law of motion, is one of the first principles of physics. However, Galileo made his most brilliant discoveries in astronomy.

Astronomical science in the early 1600s was in a state of great ferment. In it, an important dispute took place between the followers of the heliocentric theory of Copernicus and the supporters of the earlier geocentric theory.

Galileo's discoveries in the field of astronomy.

In 1604, Galileo announced that he believed Copernicus was right, but at the time he had no way of proving it. In 1609, he learned about the invention of the telescope in Holland. Although he only had a description of this instrument, he had the genius of such a property that enabled him to invent the telescope himself. Moreover, his telescope was much more advanced.

Using this new instrument, he turned his talent as an observer to the heavens and within a year made a whole series of important discoveries. Using the telescope he constructed, Galileo discovered craters and ridges on the Moon (in his mind, “mountains” and “seas”), saw countless clusters of stars forming the Milky Way, and saw the satellites of Jupiter. This was clear proof that an astronomical body can revolve not only around the Earth, but around any other planet. He looked at the Sun and saw sunspots there. In fact, other people had observed sunspots before Galileo, but he was able to publicize his discoveries more widely and bring sunspots to the attention of the scientific world. He

noticed that Venus has phases similar to the phases of the Moon. Taken together, this provided significant evidence in favor of Copernicus's theory that the Earth and other planets revolve around the Sun.

The invention of the telescope and the new discoveries made with its help made Galileo famous. However, while supporting Copernicus' theory, he encountered resistance among influential church circles, and in 1616 he was ordered to refrain from popularizing the teachings of Copernicus. For several years Galileo grumbled against this restriction. After the death of the pope in 1623, he was succeeded by a man who was an admirer of Galileo. New next year

Pope Urban VII hinted (albeit very ambiguously) that this ban would no longer apply. Galileo devoted the next six years to writing his most famous work

– "Dialogue about the two most important systems of the world." The book was a masterful presentation of evidence in defense of Copernicus' theory. It was published in 1632 with the permission of church censorship. However, when the book appeared, the church authorities were furious, and Galileo soon appeared before the Roman Inquisition on charges of violating the 1616 ban. But, fortunately for him, many church representatives were unhappy with the decision

persecute a famous scientist. Even according to the laws of the church of that time, the case brought against Galileo was very dubious, so he got off with a relatively lenient sentence. He was not actually imprisoned, but was only sentenced to house arrest in his comfortable villa in Arcetri. In theory, he was denied the right to receive visitors, but this clause of the sentence was not respected. His only punishment was to publicly renounce his theory that the Earth moves around the Sun.

The sixty-nine-year-old scientist did this during an open court hearing. There is a famous but unsupported story that, having completed his renunciation, Galileo looked down at the earth and quietly whispered: “And yet it turns.” In Arcetri he continued to work on mechanical problems.

Other discoveries of Galileo .

Galileo's work in the field of mechanics played a huge role. Dominated inhis era, scholastic physics, based on superficial observations andspeculative calculations, was clogged with ideas about the movement of things inin accordance with their “nature” and purpose, about the natural heaviness and lightness of bodies, about the “fear of emptiness,” about the perfection of circular motion and other unscientificspeculations that are intertwined in a tangled knot with religious dogmas andbiblical myths. Galileo, through a series of brilliant experiments, graduallyunraveled it and created the most important branch of mechanics, dynamics, i.e. doctrine ofmovement of bodiesWhile studying mechanics, Galileo discovered a number of its fundamental laws:the proportionality of the path traversed by falling bodies to the squares of their timefalls; equality of falling speeds of bodies of different weights in an airless environment(contrary to the opinion of Aristotle and the scholastics about the proportionality of speedfalling bodies to their weight); maintaining linear uniform motion,communicated to any body, until any external influencewill not stop it (which later became known as the law of inertia), etc.The philosophical significance of the laws of mechanics discovered by Galileo was enormous.Galileo discovered the laws of mechanics in accordance with strictly mathematicalinterpretation of the concept of these laws. Thus, for the first time in the history of developmenthuman knowledge, the concept of the law of nature acquired a strictly scientificcontent.The laws of mechanics were applied by Galileo to prove the theoryCopernicus, which was incomprehensible to most people who did not know these laws.For example, from the point of view of “common mind” it seems completely natural,that when the Earth moves in cosmic space, a strong force should arisea whirlwind sweeping away everything from its surface. This was one of the most"strong" arguments against the Copernican theory. Galileo found thatthe uniform movement of the body does not in any way affect the processes taking placeon its surface. For example, on a moving ship, bodies fallthe same as on a stationary one.

Theory of relativity.

The special theory of relativity, created in 1905 by A. Einstein, was the result of a generalization and synthesis of classical Galileo-Newton mechanics and Maxwell-Lorentz electrodynamics. “It describes the laws of all physical processes at speeds of movement close to the speed of light, but without taking into account the gravitational field. As the speeds of movement decrease, it is reduced to classical mechanics, which, thus, turns out to be its special case.” The starting point of this theory was the principle of relativity. The classical principle of relativity was formulated by Galileo Galilei: “If the laws of mechanics are valid in one coordinate system, then they are valid in any other system moving rectilinearly and uniformly relative to the first. Such systems are called inertial, since the movement in them is subject to the law of inertia, which states: " Every body maintains a state of rest or uniform rectilinear motion, unless it is forced to change

it is under the influence of moving forces." Galileo explained this situation with various illustrative examples. Imagine a traveler in a closed cabin of a calmly sailing ship. He does not notice any signs of movement. If flies fly in the cabin, they do not accumulate at the back wall, but calmly fly all over volume. If you throw a ball straight up, it will fall straight down, and will not lag behind the ship, will not fall closer to the stern. From the principle of relativity it follows that there is no fundamental difference between rest and movement - it is uniform and rectilinear. point of view. For example, a traveler in the cabin of a ship rightly believes that the book lying on his table is at rest, but a person on the shore sees that.

the ship is sailing, and he has every reason to believe that the book is moving and, moreover, at the same speed as the ship. So is the book actually moving or not? This question obviously cannot be answered simply “yes” or “no.” A dispute between a traveler and a person on the shore would be a waste of time if each of them defended only his own point of view and denied the point of view of his partner. They are both right, and to reconcile their positions, they only need to recognize that the book is at rest relative to the ship and is moving relative to

shores along with the ship. Thus, the word “relatively” in the name of Galileo’s principle does not hide anything special. It has no other meaning than the one we put into movement, that movement or rest are always

motion or rest relative to something that serves as our frame of reference. This, of course, does not mean that there is no difference between rest and uniform motion. But the concepts of rest and motion acquire meaning only when a reference point is indicated. If the classical principle of relativity asserted the invariance of the laws of mechanics in all inertial frames of reference, then in the special theory of relativity this principle was also extended to the laws of electrodynamics, and the general theory of relativity asserted the invariance of the laws of nature in any frame of reference, both inertial and non-inertial. Non-inertial reference systems are those moving with deceleration or acceleration. In accordance with the special theory of relativity, which unites space and time into a single four-dimensional space-time continuum, the space-time properties of bodies depend on their speed

movements. Spatial dimensions are reduced in the direction of motion as the speed of bodies approaches the speed of light in vacuum (300,000 km/s), time processes slow down in fast-moving systems, and body mass increases. Being in a comoving reference frame, that is, moving parallel and at the same distance from the measured system, it is impossible to notice these effects, which are called relativistic, since all spatial scales and parts used in measurements will change in exactly the same way. According to the principle of relativity, all processes in inertial systems

The counts proceed in the same way. But if the system is non-inertial, then relativistic effects can be noticed and changed. Thus, if an imaginary relativistic ship such as a photon rocket goes to distant stars, then after it returns to Earth, the time in the ship’s system will pass significantly less than on Earth, and this difference will be greater the further the flight is made, and the speed of the ship will be closer to speed of light. The difference can even be measured in hundreds and thousands of years, as a result of which the crew of the ship will immediately be transported to the near or distant future, bypassing the intermediate time, since the rocket and the crew fell out of the course of development on Earth. Similar processes of slowing down the passage of time depending on the speed of movement are actually registered now in measurements of the path length of mesons that arise when particles of primary cosmic radiation collide with the nuclei of atoms on Earth. Mesons exist for 10 -6 - 10 -15 c (depending on the type of particles) and after their origin, they decay at a short distance from the place of birth. All this can be recorded by measuring devices based on the traces of particle travel. But if the meson moves at a speed close to the speed of light, then the time processes in it slow down, the decay period increases (thousands and tens of thousands of times), and the path length from birth to decay increases accordingly. So, the special theory of relativity is based on Galileo's extended principle of relativity. In addition, it uses another new position: the speed of propagation of light (in vacuum) is the same in all inertial frames of reference. But why is this speed so important that judgment about it is equivalent to

meaning to the principle of relativity? The fact is that here we are faced with the second universal physical constant. The speed of light is the highest of all speeds in nature, the maximum speed of physical interactions. For a long time it was generally considered infinite. It was established in the 20th century, amounting to 300,000 km/s. This is a huge speed compared to commonly observed speeds in the world around us. For example,

The linear speed of rotation of the Earth at the equator is 0.5 km/s, the speed of the Earth in its orbital rotation around the sun is 30 km/s, the speed of the Sun itself in its movement around the center of the Galaxy is about 250 km/s. The speed of movement of the entire Galaxy with a large group of other galaxies relative to other similar groups is even twice as high. Together with the Earth, the Sun and the Galaxy, we fly in outer space, without noticing it, at enormous speeds, measured at several hundred kilometers per second. This is a huge speed, but still it is small compared to the speed of light. Let's imagine an experiment: a large satellite moves in orbit around the Earth, and from it, as from a cosmodrome, a rocket is launched - an interplanetary station to

Venus. The launch is carried out strictly in the direction of movement of the orbital spaceport. From the laws of classical mechanics it follows that relative to the Earth the rocket will have a speed equal to the sum of two speeds: the speed of the rocket relative to the orbital spaceport plus the speed of the spaceport itself relative to the Earth. The speeds of the movements add up, and the rocket gains a fairly high speed, which allows it to overcome the gravity of the Earth and fly to Venus. Another Experiment: A beam of light is emitted from a satellite in the direction of its movement. Relative to the satellite from which it is emitted, light travels at the speed of light. What is the speed of light relative to the earth? She remains the same. Even if the light is emitted not according to the motion of the satellite, but in the exact opposite direction, then even then the speed of light relative to the Earth will not change. This is an illustration of the most important statement that underlies the special theory of relativity. The movement of light is fundamentally different from the movement of all other bodies whose speed is less than the speed of light. The speed of these bodies always adds up to other speeds. In this sense of speed

are relative: their magnitude depends on the point of view. And the speed of light does not add up to other speeds, it is absolute, always the same, and when talking about it, there is no need to indicate a reference system. The absoluteness of the speed of light does not contradict the principle of relativity and is completely compatible with it. The constancy of this speed is a law of nature, and therefore - precisely in accordance with the principle of relativity - it is valid in all inertial frames of reference. The speed of light is the upper limit for the speed of movement of any bodies in nature, for the speed of propagation of any waves, any signals. It is maximum - this is an absolute speed record. "For all physical processes

the speed of light has the property of infinite speed. In order to impart a speed to a body equal to the speed of light, an infinite amount of energy is required, and that is why it is physically impossible for any body to reach this speed. This result was confirmed by measurements carried out on electrons. The kinetic energy of a point mass grows faster than the square of its speed, and becomes infinite for a speed equal to the speed of light." Therefore, it is often said that the speed of light is the maximum speed of information transfer. And the maximum speed of any physical interactions, and indeed all conceivable interactions in world. The solution to the problem of simultaneity, which also turns out to be relative, that is, depending on the point of view, is closely related to the speed of light.

According to classical mechanics, which considered time absolute, simultaneity is also absolute. One of the most fantastic predictions of the general theory of relativity is

a complete stop of time in a very strong gravitational field. The stronger the gravity, the greater the time dilation. Time dilation manifests itself in the gravitational redshift of light: the stronger the gravity, the more the wavelength increases and its frequency decreases. Under certain conditions, the wavelength can tend to infinity, and its frequency - to zero. Concepts of space and time formulated in theory

Einstein's relativity are by far the most

consistent. But they are macroscopic, since they rely on the experience of studying macroscopic objects, large distances and long periods of time. When constructing theories that describe the phenomena of the microworld, this classical geometric picture, which assumes continuity

space and time (space-time continuum), was transferred to a new area without any changes. There is no experimental data that contradicts the application of the theory of relativity in the microworld. But the very development of quantum theories may require a revision of ideas

about physical space and time.

Conclusion.

Thus, thanks to all his discoveries, Galileo acquired the pan-European fame of “Columbus of Heaven.” Galileo's astronomical discoveries, primarily the four satellites of Jupiter, became clear evidence of the truth of Copernicus's heliocentric theory, and the phenomena observed on the Moon, which appeared to be a planet quite similar to the Earth, and spots on the Sun confirmed Bruno's idea of ​​the physical homogeneity of the Earth and the sky. The discovery of the stellar composition of the Milky Way was indirect evidence of the countless worlds in the Universe.

Galileo's enormous contribution to the development of science has been recognized. Of greatest importance are his scientific research, such as the discovery of the law of inertia, the invention of the telescope, his astronomical observations and his brilliant works, in which he proved the correctness of Copernicus' hypotheses. His role in the development of scientific methodology deserves even greater recognition. Many natural philosophers who lived before him, guided by Aristotle, emphasized the quality of their observations and classification of phenomena. As for Galileo, he approached the phenomenon from the standpoint of its accuracy and made quantitative observations. This emphasis on careful quantitative measurement has become the primary method of scientific research. Galileo, more than anyone else, had an empirical approach to scientific knowledge. He was the first to insist on the need for experiments. He rejected the idea that a scientific question could be resolved by relying on authority, be it the opinion of the church or the statement of Aristotle. He also did not want to rely on complex deductive schemes that were not supported by experience. Medieval scholastics debated for a long time the question of what should happen and why this is happening, while Galileo, when conducting an experiment, sought to determine what should actually happen. His scientific position was characterized by a clearly non-mystical approach. In this respect he was even more modern than his successors such as Newton.

It must also be emphasized that Galileo was a deeply religious man. Despite the trial and subsequent conviction, he did not renounce either religion or the church; he only opposed attempts by church authorities to interfere with the solution of scientific problems. Subsequent generations are quite

rightly express their admiration for Galileo as a symbol of protest against dogmatism and authoritarian attempts to stifle freedom of thought. However, he played the most important role in the creation of the modern method of scientific research. Using the theory of dual truth, Galileo decisively separated science from religion. He argued, for example, that nature should be studied through mathematics and experience rather than through the Bible. In understanding nature, a person should be guided only by his own reason. So

Galileo came to the conclusion about the possibility of limitless knowledge of nature. Based on his own horoscope, Galileo foresaw a severe eye disease, which really struck him in his mature years. He went blind in 1637. Galileo was buried in Santa Croce. A happy land that has seen such extraordinary people in art, politics, science as Michelangelo, Dante,

Galileo, Machiavelli. Galileo died in a village near Florence. The amazing fact is that on January 9, 1642, the day Galileo died, Newton was born. The contribution of the great Italian scientist is highly appreciated by humanity. His principle of relativity gave impetus to the development of a more advanced theory. Thus, the modern theory of relativity showed the unity

space and time, expressed in a joint change in their characteristics depending on the concentration of masses and their movement. Time and space ceased to be considered independently of each other and the idea of ​​a space-time four-dimensional continuum arose.

The theory of relativity is based on the basic principles:

1. The principle of relativity: all laws of nature are the same in all inertial frames of reference;

2. The principle of constancy of the speed of light: the speed of light in vacuum is the same in all inertial frames of reference and does not depend on the movement of light sources and receivers.

From this we can conclude about the main results to which the theory of relativity comes:

Relativity of space-time properties;

Relativity of mass and energy;

Equivalence of heavy and inert masses.

References:

1. Grushevitskaya T.G. The concept of modern natural science. - M., 1998.

2. Gorelov A.A. The concept of modern natural science. - M., 1998.

3. Eremeeva A.I. The astronomical picture of the world and its creators. -M., 1984.

4. The concept of modern natural science / Ed. V.N. Lavrinenko. - M.,

He receives a very good musical education. When he was ten years old, his family moved to his father's hometown of Florence, and then Galileo was sent to school in a Benedictine monastery. There, for four years, he studied the usual medieval disciplines with the scholastics.

Vincenzo Galilei chooses an honorable and profitable profession as a doctor for his son. In 1581, seventeen-year-old Galileo was enrolled as a student at the University of Piraeus in the Faculty of Medicine and Philosophy. But the state of medical science at that time filled him with dissatisfaction and pushed him away from a medical career. At that time, he happened to attend a lecture on mathematics by Ostillo Ricci, a friend of his family, and was amazed at the logic and beauty of Euclid's geometry.

He immediately studied the works of Euclid and Archimedes. His stay at the university becomes more and more unbearable. After spending four years there, Galileo left it shortly before completion and returned to Florence. There he continued his studies under the guidance of Ritchie, who appreciated the extraordinary abilities of the young Galileo. In addition to purely mathematical questions, he became acquainted with technical achievements. He studies ancient philosophers and modern writers and in a short time acquires the knowledge of a serious scientist.

Discoveries of Galileo Galilei

Law of motion of a pendulum

Studying in Pisa with his powers of observation and keen intelligence, he discovers the law of motion of the pendulum (the period depends only on the length, not on the amplitude or weight of the pendulum). Later he proposes the design of a device with a pendulum for measuring at regular intervals. In 1586, Galileo completed his first solo study of hydrostatic equilibrium and constructed a new type of hydrostatic balance. The following year he wrote a purely geometric work, Theorems of a Rigid Body.

Galileo's first treatises were not published, but quickly spread and came to the fore. In 1588, commissioned by the Florentine Academy, he gave two lectures on the form, position and extent of Dante's Hell. They are filled with mechanical theorems and numerous geometric proofs, and are used as a pretext for the development of geography and ideas for the whole world. In 1589, the Grand Duke of Tuscany appointed Galileo as professor in the Faculty of Mathematics at the University of Pisa.

In Pisa, a young scientist again encounters educational medieval science. Galileo must learn the geocentric system of Ptolemy, which, along with the philosophy of Aristotle, adapted to the needs of the church, is accepted. He does not interact with his colleagues, argues with them, and initially doubts many of Aristotle's claims about physics.

The first scientific experiment in physics

According to him, the movement of the Earth's bodies is divided into “natural”, when they tend to their “natural places” (for example, downward movement for heavy bodies and “upward” movement) and “violent” movement. The movement stops when the cause disappears. “Perfect celestial bodies” are eternal motion in perfect circles around the center of the Earth (and the center of the world). To refute Aristotle's assertions that bodies fall at a speed proportional to their weights, Galileo made his famous experiments with bodies falling from the leaning tower at Pisa.

This is actually the first scientific experiment in physics and with it Galileo introduces a new method of acquiring knowledge - from experience and observation. The result of these studies is the treatise “Falling Bodies,” which sets out the main conclusion about the independence of speed from the weight of a falling body. It is written in a new style for scientific literature - in the form of a dialogue, which reveals the main conclusion about the speed that does not depend on the weight of the falling body.

The lack of a scientific base and low pay force Galie to leave the University of Pisa before the expiration of his three-year contract. At that time, after his father died, he had to take over the family. Galileo is invited to take up the chair of mathematics at the University of Padua. The University of Padua was one of the oldest in Europe and was renowned for its spirit of freedom of thought and independence from the clergy. Here Galileo worked and quickly made a name for himself as an excellent physicist and a very good engineer. In 1593, his first two works were completed, as well as “Mechanics”, in which he outlined his views on the theory of simple machines, invented proportions with which it is easy to perform various geometric operations - enlarging a drawing, etc. His patents for hydraulic equipment also preserved.
Galileo's lectures at the university voiced official views, he taught geometry, Ptolemy's geocentric system and Aristotle's physics.

Introduction to the teachings of Copernicus

At the same time, at home, among friends and students, he talks about various problems and expounds his own new views. This duality of life Galileo is forced to lead for a long time until he becomes convinced of his ideas in the public space. It is believed that while still in Pisa, Galileo became acquainted with the teachings of Copernicus. In Padua he is already a convinced supporter of the heliocentric system and has as his main goal the collection of evidence in its favor. In a letter to Kepler in 1597 he wrote:

“Many years ago I turned to the ideas of Copernicus and with my theory I was able to completely explain a number of phenomena that generally could not be explained by opposing theories. I have come up with many arguments that refute opposing ideas."

Galilean pipe

At the end of 1608, news reaches Galilee that an optical device has been discovered in the Netherlands that allows one to see distant objects. Galileo, after hard work and processing hundreds of pieces of optical glass, built his first telescope with triple magnification. This is a system of lenses (eyepieces) now called the Galilean tube. His third telescope, with 32x magnification, looks at the sky.

Only after several months of observation, he published amazing discoveries in a book:
The Moon is not perfectly spherical and smooth, its surface is covered with hills and depressions similar to the Earth.
The Milky Way is a collection of numerous stars.
The planet Jupiter has four satellites that orbit around it like the Moon around the Earth.

Despite the fact that the book is allowed to be printed, this book actually contains a serious blow to Christian dogmas - the principle of the difference between “imperfect” earthly bodies and “perfect, eternal and unchangeable” celestial bodies is destroyed.

The motion of Jupiter's moons has been used as an argument for the Copernican system. Galileo's first bold astronomical achievements did not attract the attention of the Inquisition; on the contrary, they brought him enormous popularity and influence as a renowned scientist throughout Italy, including among the clergy.

In 1610, Galileo was appointed "first mathematician and philosopher" in the court of the ruler of Tuscany and his former student Cosimo II de' Medici. He leaves the University of Padua after 18 years of residence there and moves to Florence, where he is freed from any academic work and can concentrate only on his research.

The arguments in favor of the Copernican system were soon supplemented by the discovery of the phases of Venus, the observation of Saturn's rings and sunspots. He visited Rome, where he was greeted by the cardinals and the pope. Galileo hopes that the logical perfection and experimental justification of the new science will force the church to recognize this. In 1612, his important work “Reflections on Floating Bodies” was published. In it, he gives new evidence for Archimedes' law and opposes many aspects of scholastic philosophy, asserting the right of reason not to obey authorities. In 1613, he wrote a treatise on sunspots in Italian with great literary talent. At that time he also almost discovered the rotation of the Sun.

Ban on the teachings of Copernicus

Since the first attacks had already been made on Galileo and his students, he felt the need to speak and write his famous letter to Castelli. He proclaimed the independence of science from theology and the uselessness of Scripture in the research of scientists: “... in mathematical disputes, it seems to me that the Bible belongs to the last place.” But the spread of opinions about the heliocentric system seriously worried theologians and in March 1616, with a decree of the Holy Congregation, the teachings of Copernicus were prohibited.

For the entire active community of Copernicus supporters, many years of silence begin. But the system becomes obvious only when in 1610-1616. The main weapon against the geocentric system was astronomical discoveries. Now Galileo strikes at the very foundations of the old, unscientific worldview, affecting the deepest physical roots of the world. The struggle resumed with the appearance in 1624 of two works, including “Letter to Ingoli.” In this work, Galileo expounds the principle of relativity. The traditional argument against the Earth's motion is discussed, namely that if the Earth were rotating, a stone thrown from a tower would lag behind the Earth's surface.

Dialogue on the two main systems of the world – Ptolemy and Copernicus

In the following years, Galileo was immersed in work on a major book that reflected the results of his 30 years of research and reflection, the experience gained in applied mechanics and astronomy, and his general philosophical views on the world. In 1630, an extensive manuscript entitled “Dialogue on the two main systems of the world - Ptolemy and Copernicus” was completed.

The exposition of the book was structured in the form of a conversation between three people: Salviatti, a convinced supporter of Copernicus and the new philosophy; Sagredo, who is a wise man and agrees with all of Salviatti's arguments, but is initially neutral; and Simplicchio, a defender of the traditional Aristotelian concept. The names Salviatti and Sagredo were given to two of Galileo's friends, while Simplicio was named after Aristotle's famous 6th-century commentator Simplicius, meaning "simple" in Italian.

The dialogue provides insight into almost all of Galileo's scientific discoveries, as well as his understanding of nature and the possibilities of studying it. He takes a materialistic position; believes that the world exists independently of human consciousness and introduces new methods of research - observation, experiment, thought experiment and quantitative mathematical analysis instead of offensive reasoning and references to authority and dogma.

Galileo considers the world to be one and changeable, without dividing it into “eternal” and “variable” substance; denies absolute motion around a fixed center of the world: "May I reasonably ask you the question whether there is any center of the world at all, because neither you nor anyone else has proven that the world is finite and has a definite shape, and not infinite and unlimited." Galileo made great efforts to have his work published. He makes a number of compromises and writes to readers that he does not adhere to the teachings of Copernicus and provides a hypothetical possibility that is not true and should be rejected.

Ban on "Dialogue"

For two years he collected permission from the highest spiritual authorities and the censors of the Inquisition, and at the beginning of 1632 the book was published. But very soon there is a strong reaction from theologians. The Roman Pontiff was convinced that he was depicted under the image of Simplicio. A special commission of theologians was appointed, which declared the work heretical, and the seventy-year-old Galileo was summoned to trial in Rome. The process launched by the Inquisition against him lasts a year and a half and ends with a verdict according to which “Dialogue” is prohibited.

Renouncing your views

On June 22, 1633, in front of all the cardinals and members of the Inquisition, Galileo reads the text of his renunciation of his views. This event ostensibly signals the complete suppression of his resistance, but in reality it is the next big compromise he must make to continue his scientific work. The legendary phrase: “Eppur si muove” (and still it turns) is justified by his life and work after the trial. It is said that he uttered this phrase after his abdication, however, in fact, this fact is an artistic fiction of the 18th century.

Galileo is under house arrest near Florence, and, despite almost losing his sight, he is working hard on a new great work. The manuscript was smuggled out of Italy by her admirers, and in 1638 it was published in the Netherlands under the title Lectures and Mathematical Proofs of Two New Sciences.

Lectures and mathematical proofs of two new sciences

The lectures are the pinnacle of Galileo's work. They were written again as a conversation over six days between three interlocutors - Salviati, Sagredo and Simpliccio. As before, Salvati plays the leading role. Simplicio no longer argued, but asked questions only for more detailed explanations.

On the first, third and fourth days, the theory of the movement of falling and thrown bodies is revealed. The second day is devoted to the topic of materials and geometric balance. The fifth lecture gives mathematical theorems, and the last contains incomplete results and ideas about the theory of resistance. It has the least value among the six. Regarding material resistance, Galileo's work is pioneering in this field and plays an important role.

The most valuable results are contained in the first, third and fifth lectures. This is the highest point that Galileo reached in his understanding of motion. Considering the fall of bodies, he sums up:

"I think that if the resistance of the medium were completely removed, all bodies would fall at the same speed."

The theory of uniform rectilinear and equilibrium motion is further developed. The results of his numerous experiments on free fall, movement on an inclined plane and the movement of a body thrown at an angle to the horizon appear. The time dependence is clearly formulated and the parabolic trajectory is explored. Again, the principle of inertia is proven and used as fundamental in all considerations.

When the Lectures are published, Galileo is completely blind. But in the last years of his life he works. In 1636, he proposed a method for accurately determining longitude at sea using the satellites of Jupiter. His dream is to organize numerous astronomical observations from different points on the earth's surface. To this end, he negotiates with the Dutch commission to accept his method, but is refused and the church prohibits his further contacts. In his last letters to his followers, he continues to make important astronomical points.

Galileo Galilei died on January 8, 1642, surrounded by his students Viviani and Toricelli, his son and a representative of the Inquisition. Only 95 years later were his ashes allowed to be transported to Florence by the other two great sons of Italy, Michelangelo and Dante. His inventive scientific work, passing through the strict criteria of time, gives him immortality among the names of the brightest artists of physics and astronomy.

Galileo Galilei - biography of life and his discoveries

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“ShkolaLa” welcomes all its readers who want to know a lot.

Once upon a time everyone thought like this:

The earth is a flat, huge nickel,

But one man took the telescope,

Opened the way for us to the space age.

Who do you think this is?

Among the world-famous scientists is Galileo Galilei. In which country you were born and how you studied, what you discovered and what you became famous for - these are the questions to which we will look for answers today.

Lesson plan:

Where are future scientists born?

The poor family where little Galileo Galilei was born in 1564 lived in the Italian city of Pisa.

The father of the future scientist was a true master in various fields, from mathematics to art history, so it is not at all surprising that from childhood young Galileo fell in love with painting and music and gravitated towards the exact sciences.

When the boy turned eleven, the family from Pisa, where Galileo lived, moved to another city in Italy - Florence.

There he began his studies in a monastery, where the young student demonstrated brilliant abilities in the study of sciences. He even thought about a career as a clergyman, but his father did not approve of his choice, wanting his son to become a doctor. That is why, at seventeen, Galileo moved to the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Pisa and began to diligently study philosophy, physics and mathematics.

However, he was unable to graduate from university for a simple reason: his family could not pay for his further education. Having left the third year, student Galileo begins self-education in the field of physical and mathematical sciences.

Thanks to his friendship with the wealthy Marquis del Monte, the young man managed to obtain a paid scientific position as a teacher of astronomy and mathematics at the University of Pisa.

During his university work, he conducted various experiments, the result of which were the laws of free fall, the movement of a body on an inclined plane and the force of inertia that he discovered.

Since 1606, the scientist has been closely involved in astronomy.

Interesting Facts! The full name of the scientist is Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de Galilei.

About mathematics, mechanics and physics

It is said that, while a university professor in the town of Pisa, Galileo conducted experiments by dropping objects of different weights from the height of the Leaning Tower of Pisa to disprove Aristotle's theory. Even in some textbooks you can find such a picture.

Only these experiments are not mentioned anywhere in Galileo’s works. Most likely, as researchers today believe, this is a myth.

But the scientist rolled objects along an inclined plane, measuring time by his own heart pulse. There were no accurate clocks back then! These very experiments were put into the laws of motion of bodies.

Galileo was credited with inventing the thermometer in 1592. The device was then called a thermoscope, and it was completely primitive. A thin glass tube was soldered to the glass ball. This structure was placed in liquid. The air in the ball heated up and displaced the liquid in the tube. The higher the temperature, the more air in the ball and the lower the water level in the tube.

In 1606, an article appeared where Galileo laid out a drawing of a proportional compass. This is a simple tool that converted measured dimensions to scale and was used in architecture and drafting.

Galileo is credited with the invention of the microscope. In 1609, he made a “small eye” with two lenses - convex and concave. Using his invention, the scientist examined insects.

With his research, Galileo laid the foundations of classical physics and mechanics. Thus, on the basis of his conclusions about inertia, Newton subsequently established the first law of mechanics, according to which any body is at rest or moves uniformly in the absence of external forces.

His studies of pendulum oscillations formed the basis for the invention of the pendulum clock and made it possible to make precise measurements in physics.

Interesting Facts! Galileo not only excelled in the natural sciences, but was also a creative person: he had an excellent knowledge of literature and composed poetry.

About astronomical discoveries that shocked the world

In 1609, a scientist heard a rumor about the existence of a device that could help view distant objects by collecting light. If you already guessed, it was called a telescope, which is translated from Greek as “look far away.”

For his invention, Galileo modified the telescope with lenses, and this device was capable of magnifying objects by 3 times. Time after time, he put together a new combination of several telescopes, and it gave more and more magnification. As a result, Galileo’s “visionary” began to zoom in 32 times.

What discoveries in the field of astronomy belonged to Galileo Galilei and made him famous throughout the world, becoming real sensations? How did his invention help the scientist?

• Galileo Galilei told everyone that this is a planet comparable to the Earth. He saw plains, craters and mountains on its surface.
• Thanks to the telescope, Galileo discovered four satellites of Jupiter, today called “Galilean”, and appeared to everyone in the form of a strip scattering into many stars.
• By placing smoked glass at the telescope, the scientist was able to examine it, see spots on it and prove to everyone that it was the Earth that revolved around it, and not vice versa, as Aristotle believed and religion and the Bible said.
• He was the first to see the surroundings, which he took for satellites, today known to us as rings, found different phases of Venus and made it possible to observe previously unknown stars.

Galileo Galilei combined his discoveries in the book “Star Messenger”, confirming the hypothesis that our planet is mobile and rotates around an axis, and the sun does not revolve around us, which caused the condemnation of the church. His work was called heresy, and the scientist himself lost his freedom of movement and was placed under house arrest.

Interesting Facts! It is quite surprising for our developed world that it was only in 1992 that the Vatican and the Pope recognized that Galileo was right about the rotation of the Earth around the Sun. Until this time, the Catholic Church was sure that the opposite was happening: our planet is motionless, and the Sun “walks” around us.

This is how you can briefly tell about the life of an outstanding scientist who gave impetus to the development of astronomy, physics and mathematics.

A famous science and entertainment television program was named after Galileo Galilei. The host of this program, Alexander Pushnoy, and his colleagues conducted all sorts of different experiments and tried to explain what they did. I suggest watching an excerpt from this wonderful program right now.

“ShkolaLa” says goodbye for a while to look for and share useful information with you again and again.

About ten years passed after the heroic death of Bruno, and in 1610 the news of the amazing astronomical discoveries of the Italian scientist spread throughout the world Galileo Galilee.

The name of Galileo was already known to scientists.

became famous for his discoveries in physics and mechanics, but from a young age he was also interested in astronomy and was a staunch supporter of the teachings of Copernicus.

He believed that observation and experience are the surest means of understanding nature. Therefore, in astronomy he attached particular importance to observations of the sky. Copernicus, Bruno and their contemporaries

could see in the sky only what is visible to the naked eye. was the first scientist to begin observing the sky using the telescopes he built. How tiny these were

Galileo's trumpets compared to modern powerful telescopes that magnify images thousands of times! The first tube with which I began my observations only magnified three times. Later he managed to build a pipe with a magnification of thirty-two times. But how exciting, literally shocking to his contemporaries, were the discoveries made by Galileo using these homemade instruments!

Each of these discoveries was a clear confirmation of the teachings of the brilliant Nicolaus Copernicus

. Observing the Moon, I became convinced that it has mountains, plains and deep depressions. This meant that the lunar surface was similar in structure to the earth’s.

Discovered four satellites of Jupiter orbiting this planet. This discovery irrefutably proved that not only the Earth can be the center of circulation of the celestial bodies.

Observing sunspots, he discovered that they move along the solar surface, and concluded that the Sun rotates around its axis. After this, it was easy to admit that rotation around an axis is characteristic of all celestial bodies, and not just the Earth. But that was not all. Observing the starry sky, I became convinced that the number of stars is much greater than the naked eye can see. A huge white stripe in the sky -

This confirmed Bruno’s bold idea that there are an infinite number of stars - suns, which means that the expanses of the Universe are limitless and inexhaustible.

These discoveries of Galileo were met with enthusiastic surprise from his contemporaries. Following Galileo, astronomers in different countries began to observe the sky with astronomical telescopes and fully confirmed Galileo's discoveries. Thus, it became clear to all progressive people that Copernicus and Bruno were right, that the opinion about some exclusive role of the Earth in the universe does not stand up to criticism.

It is easy to understand the furious anger of the “church fathers” that Galileo’s discoveries, which dealt an even more crushing blow to religious inventions than Bruno’s inspired ideas, must have caused.

The cutting-edge science that confirmed Copernicus was right was scary for the church. The anger of the Roman churchmen fell upon all the followers of Copernicus, and first of all on Galileo. By a special decree of the Pope, the book of Copernicus was confiscated, and the propaganda of his teachings was prohibited. But he not only did not obey this prohibition, but, on the contrary, continued to develop the teachings of Copernicus.

For many years he worked on a great work, “Dialogue on the two most important systems of the world, Ptolemaic and Copernican.” In this book, which he managed to publish with great difficulty in 1632, he, summarizing his discoveries, convincingly showed the unconditional correctness of the teachings of Copernicus and the complete inconsistency of the Ptolemaic system. By publishing this book, he seemed to declare to the whole world that he was not afraid of threats from the church, that he was determined to fight to the end for the triumph of science against superstition and prejudice.

In response to the appearance of this book The Roman Church brought Galileo to trial before the Inquisition. In the reprisal of the great scientist, the “holy fathers” of the church saw the only way to save their authority, which was being destroyed by the successes of science.

It is difficult to imagine anything more shameful than the trial before which Galileo had to appear. He was forced to renounce the doctrine that the Earth rotates.

Having condemned Galileo, the Inquisition did everything to poison the last years of his life.. He lived under house arrest, and the blindness that befell him did not give him the opportunity to continue to engage in science. He died in 1642. A remarkable physicist, mechanic, successor of the work of Copernicus, a courageous fighter for science against religious superstition and ignorance - such was this great scientist.