Social science
Table of liberal reforms of the 60th and 70th centuries. Local government reforms

Table of liberal reforms of the 60th and 70th centuries. Local government reforms

Reforms of the 60-70s

		Meaning
	Zemstvos are elected representative institutions that deal with local economic issues (in provinces, districts)	Zemstvos played significant role in solving local economic and cultural problems: organizing medical and veterinary care, the emergence of educational institutions
Judicial	Senate - considered political affairs; highest appellate system. District Court with jurors. Magistrate Court - heard small civil claims and minor offenses, without a jury with one judge.	The court became classless, transparent, adversarial, independent from the administration
	Universal conscription for men from the age of 20. The length of service depended on the conscript's level of education. Rearmament of the army. New military educational institutions.	Increasing the combat effectiveness of the Russian army due to the possibility of replenishing it during the war with reserves trained in military affairs.

1). Local government reforms.

· equality of all classes before the law;

· classlessness - representatives of all classes are tried by one court;

· publicity of the court – court hearings are open to everyone;

· adversarial - in a trial two parties: the accusing - the prosecutor and the defending - the lawyer “compete”; interest in advocacy arose in society - the lawyer and the prince became famous;

· independent from the administration, i.e. a judge could not be dismissed for issuing a verdict that was undesirable to the authorities.

According to the new judicial statutes, two types of courts were created - magistrates and general.

3) Military reforms.

Military regulations approved on January 1 1874. The author of the reform is the Minister of War, Count.

***Filling out the table: third line: Military reform.

Main provisions of the reform:

· recruitment was cancelled;

· universal military service was introduced for all classes from the age of 20;

· service life has been reduced (6-7 years);

The army and navy were being rearmed. All soldiers were taught to read and write during their service. As a result of the reform, Russia received a modern mass army.

4) Reforms in the field of education. 1864

· Regulations on primary public schools: primary schools were created various types- state, parish, Sunday. The duration of training was 3 years.

· Gymnasiums have become the main type of secondary education institutions. They were divided into real and classic.

Real

They prepared “for employment in various branches of industry and trade.” Training – 7 years. The main attention was paid to the study of mathematics, natural science, and technical subjects. Access to universities for graduates of real gymnasiums was closed. They could continue their studies in technical universities

Classic

A large place was given to ancient languages - Latin and Ancient Greek. They prepared young people to enter universities. The duration of study since 1871 is 8 years. The gymnasium accepted children “of all classes, without distinction of rank or religion.” But the tuition fees were very high.

· A new charter for universities was approved, which restored the autonomy of these educational institutions.

· Women's education developed - women's gymnasiums, higher women's courses.

5) Constitutional throwing. "Dictatorship of the heart."

Many innovations that appeared in Russia as a result of reforms came into conflict with the principles of autocracy. Alexander II was convinced that autocratic power was the most acceptable form of government for a multinational and huge Russian Empire. He stated “that he opposes the establishment of a constitution not because he values his power, but because he is convinced that it would be a misfortune for Russia and would lead to its collapse.”

Nevertheless, Alexander II was forced to make concessions to supporters of constitutional government. The reason was terror against senior officials and constant attempts to assassinate the emperor himself by revolutionary organizations.

After the second assassination attempt on Alexander II in April 1879, the tsar appointed popular military leaders, generals, Melikov, as governors general in order to calm the population and cool the heads of the revolutionaries.

In February 1880, a new attempt was made to assassinate the Emperor in the Winter Palace. Alexander II established the Supreme Administrative Commission and appointed its head the Kharkov Governor-General Melikov.

Activities -Melikov:

· All security agencies were concentrated in the Ministry of Internal Affairs - the number of assassination attempts began to decline.

· Relaxed censorship.

· Insisted on the dismissal of the Minister of Public Education, Count.

“Dictatorship of the Heart”: the number of terrorist attacks has decreased, the situation in the country has become calmer.

Project “Constitution of Loris-Melikov”:

1. To develop laws, it is necessary to create two temporary commissions from representatives of zemstvos and cities - administrative, economic and financial.

2. He proposed sending draft laws for discussion to the General Commission, composed of elected representatives of zemstvo and city self-government.

3. After approval in the General Commission, the bill would go to the State Council, in the meeting of which 10-15 elected representatives who worked on the General Commission would also participate.

On the morning of March 1, 1881, Alexander II approved the Loris-Melikov project and scheduled a meeting of the Council of Ministers for March 4 for its final approval. But a few hours later the emperor was killed by terrorists.

Fill out the table.

	Liberal nature of the reform	Limitations of reform

Urban
Judicial

Peasant reform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Liberal reforms 60-70s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Establishment of zemstvos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Self-government in cities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Judicial reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Military reform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Education reforms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....10

Church in the period of reforms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .13

Peasant reform.

Russia on the eve of the abolition of serfdom . The defeat in the Crimean War testified to Russia's serious military-technical lag behind the leading European states. There was a threat of the country sliding into the category of minor powers. The authorities could not allow this. Along with the defeat came the understanding that the main reason for Russia's economic backwardness was serfdom.

The enormous costs of the war seriously undermined the monetary system of the state. Recruitment, seizures of livestock and fodder, and increased duties ruined the population. And although the peasants did not respond to the hardships of the war with mass uprisings, they were in a state of tense anticipation of the tsar's decision to abolish serfdom.

In April 1854, a decree was issued on the formation of a reserve rowing flotilla (“sea militia”). Serfs could also enroll in it with the consent of the landowner and with a written obligation to return to the owner. The decree limited the area where the flotilla was formed to four provinces. However, he shook up almost all of peasant Russia. Word spread through the villages that the emperor was calling for volunteers to military service and for this he frees them forever from serfdom. Unauthorized enrollment in the militia resulted in a mass flight of peasants from the landowners. This phenomenon took on an even broader character in connection with the manifesto of January 29, 1855 on the recruitment of warriors into the land militia, covering dozens of provinces.

The atmosphere in the “enlightened” society also changed. According to the figurative expression of the historian V. O. Klyuchevsky, Sevastopol hit stagnant minds. “Now the question of the emancipation of serfs is on everyone’s lips,” wrote the historian K. D. Kavelin, “they talk about it loudly, even those in whom it was previously impossible to hint at the fallacy of serfdom without causing nervous attacks are thinking about it.” Even the tsar's relatives - his aunt, Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna, and his younger brother Konstantin - spoke in favor of reforms.

Preparation of peasant reform . For the first time, Alexander II officially announced the need to abolish serfdom on March 30, 1856 to representatives of the Moscow nobility. At the same time, he, knowing the mood of the majority of landowners, emphasized that it is much better if this happens from above than to wait for it to happen from below.

On January 3, 1857, Alexander II formed the Secret Committee to discuss the issue of abolition of serfdom. However, many of its members, former Nikolaev dignitaries, were ardent opponents of the liberation of the peasants. They hindered the work of the committee in every possible way. And then the emperor decided to take more effective measures. At the end of October 1857, Vilna Governor-General V.N. Nazimov, who in his youth was Alexander’s personal adjutant, arrived in St. Petersburg. He brought the emperor an appeal from the nobles of the Vilna, Kovno and Grodno provinces. They asked permission to discuss the issue of freeing the peasants without giving them land. Alexander took advantage of this request and sent a rescript to Nazimov on November 20, 1857 on the establishment of provincial committees from among the landowners to prepare projects for peasant reform. On December 5, 1857, St. Petersburg Governor-General P. I. Ignatiev received a similar document. Soon the text of the rescript sent to Nazimov appeared in the official press. Thus, the preparation of the peasant reform became public.

During 1858, “committees for improving the life of landowner peasants” were established in 46 provinces (officials were afraid to include the word “liberation” in official documents). In February 1858, the Secret Committee was renamed the Main Committee. Its chairman became Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich. In March 1859, Editorial Commissions were established under the Main Committee. Their members were engaged in reviewing materials received from the provinces and drawing up, on their basis, a general draft law on the emancipation of peasants. General Ya. I. Rostovtsev, who enjoyed the special trust of the emperor, was appointed chairman of the commissions. He attracted supporters of reforms from among liberal officials and landowners to his work - N. A. Milyutin, Yu. F. Samarin, V. A. Cherkassky, Y. A. Solovyov, P. P. Semenov, called by contemporaries “red bureaucrats” " They advocated the liberation of peasants with land allotments for ransom and their transformation into small landowners, while landownership was preserved. These ideas were radically different from those expressed by the nobles in provincial committees. They believed that even if the peasants were to be liberated, it would be without land. In October 1860, the editorial commissions completed their work. The final preparation of the reform documents was transferred to the Main Committee, then they were approved by the State Council.

The main provisions of the peasant reform. On February 19, 1861, Alexander II signed the manifesto “On granting serfs the rights of free rural inhabitants and on the organization of their life,” as well as “Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom.” According to these documents, peasants who previously belonged to landowners were declared legally free and received general civil rights. Upon release, they were allocated land, but in a limited amount and for a ransom on special conditions. The land allotment that the landowner provided to the peasant could not be higher than the norm established by law. Its size ranged from 3 to 12 dessiatines in different parts of the empire. If at the time of liberation there was more land in peasant use, then the landowner had the right to cut off the surplus, while land of better quality was taken from the peasants. According to the reform, peasants had to buy land from landowners. They could get it for free, but only a quarter of the allotment determined by law. Before the redemption of their land plots, peasants found themselves in the position of temporarily liable. They had to pay quitrent or serve corvee in favor of the landowners.

The size of allotments, quitrents and corvée was to be determined by an agreement between the landowner and the peasants - Charter Charters. The temporary condition could last for 9 years. At this time, the peasant could not give up his allotment.

World mediators, as well as provincial presences for peasant affairs consisting of the governor, government official, prosecutor and representatives of local landowners, were supposed to monitor the implementation of the reform on the ground.

The reform of 1861 abolished serfdom. The peasants became free people. However, the reform preserved the remnants of serfdom in the village, primarily landownership. In addition, the peasants did not receive full ownership of the land, which means they did not have the opportunity to rebuild their economy on a capitalist basis.

Liberal reforms of the 60-70s

Establishment of zemstvos. After the abolition of serfdom, a number of other transformations were required. By the beginning of the 60s. the previous local management showed its complete failure. The activities of the officials appointed in the capital in charge of the provinces and districts, and the detachment of the population from making any decisions, brought economic life, health care, and education to extreme disorder. The abolition of serfdom made it possible to involve all segments of the population in solving local problems. At the same time, when establishing new governing bodies, the government could not help but take into account the sentiments of the nobles, many of whom were dissatisfied with the abolition of serfdom.

On January 1, 1864, an imperial decree introduced the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions,” which provided for the creation of elected zemstvos in districts and provinces. Only men enjoyed the right to vote in the elections of these bodies. Voters were divided into three curia (categories): landowners, urban voters and elected from peasant societies. Owners of at least 200 dessiatines of land or other real estate worth at least 15 thousand rubles, as well as owners of industrial and commercial enterprises generating income of at least 6 thousand rubles per year could be voters in the landowner curia. Small landowners, uniting, nominated only authorized representatives for elections.

The voters of the city curia were merchants, owners of enterprises or trading establishments with an annual turnover of at least six thousand rubles, as well as owners of real estate worth from 600 rubles (in small towns) to 3.6 thousand rubles (in major cities).

Elections for the peasant curia were multi-stage: first, village assemblies elected representatives to volost assemblies. At volost assemblies, electors were first elected, who then nominated representatives to county government bodies. Representatives from peasants to provincial self-government bodies were elected at district assemblies.

Zemstvo institutions were divided into administrative and executive. The administrative bodies - zemstvo assemblies - consisted of members of all classes. In both districts and provinces, councilors were elected for a term of three years. Zemstvo assemblies elected executive bodies - zemstvo councils, which also worked for three years. The range of issues that were resolved by zemstvo institutions was limited to local affairs: the construction and maintenance of schools, hospitals, the development of local trade and industry, etc. The governor monitored the legality of their activities. The material basis for the existence of zemstvos was a special tax that was levied on real estate: land, houses, factories and commercial establishments.

The most energetic, democratically minded intelligentsia grouped around the zemstvos. The new self-government bodies raised the level of education and public health, improved road network and expanded agronomic assistance to peasants on a scale of which state power was incapable. Despite the fact that representatives of the nobility predominated in the zemstvos, their activities were aimed at improving the situation of the broad masses.

Zemstvo reform was not carried out in the Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, in Siberia, in Central Asia- where noble land ownership was absent or insignificant. Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Right Bank Ukraine, and the Caucasus also did not receive local government bodies, since there were few Russians among the landowners there.

Self-government in cities. In 1870, following the example of the zemstvo, a urban reform. She introduced all-class self-government bodies - city councils elected for four years. Voters of the Duma elected permanent executive bodies - city councils - for the same term, as well as the city mayor, who was the head of both the Duma and the council.

The right to elect members of the new governing bodies was given to men who had reached the age of 25 and paid city taxes. All voters, in accordance with the amount of taxes paid to the city, were divided into three curiae. The first was a small group of the largest owners of real estate, industrial and commercial enterprises, who paid 1/3 of all taxes to the city treasury. The second curia included smaller taxpayers, contributing another 1/3 of city taxes. The third curia consisted of all other taxpayers. Moreover, each of them elected equal number vowels in the city duma, which ensured the predominance of large property owners in it.

The activities of city government were controlled by the state. The mayor was approved by the governor or the minister of internal affairs. These same officials could impose a ban on any decision of the city council. To control the activities of city self-government, a special body was created in each province - the provincial presence for city affairs.

City self-government bodies appeared in 1870, first in 509 Russian cities. In 1874, the reform was introduced in the cities of Transcaucasia, in 1875 - in Lithuania, Belarus and Right Bank Ukraine, in 1877 - in the Baltic states. It did not apply to the cities of Central Asia, Poland and Finland. Despite all its limitations, the urban reform of the emancipation of Russian society, like the zemstvo reform, contributed to the involvement of broad sections of the population in solving management issues. This served as a prerequisite for the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia.

Judicial reform . The most consistent transformation of Alexander II was the judicial reform carried out in November 1864. In accordance with it, the new court was built on the principles of bourgeois law: equality of all classes before the law; publicity of the court"; independence of judges; adversarial nature of prosecution and defense; irremovability of judges and investigators; election of some judicial bodies.

According to the new judicial statutes, two systems of courts were created - magistrates and general. Magistrates' courts heard minor criminal and civil cases. They were created in cities and counties. Justices of the peace administered justice individually. They were elected by zemstvo assemblies and city dumas. A high educational and property qualification was established for judges. At the same time, they received quite high wages - from 2200 to 9 thousand rubles per year.

The general court system included district courts and judicial chambers. Members of the district court were appointed by the emperor on the proposal of the Minister of Justice and considered criminal and complex civil cases. Criminal cases were tried with the participation of twelve jurors. The juror could be a Russian citizen aged 25 to 70 with an impeccable reputation, living in the area for at least two years and owning real estate worth at least 2 thousand rubles. The jury lists were approved by the governor. Appeals against the district court's decision were filed with the trial chamber. Moreover, an appeal against the verdict was allowed. The Trial Chamber also considered cases of official misconduct. Such cases were equated to state crimes and were heard with the participation of class representatives. The highest court was the Senate. The reform established the transparency of trials. They took place openly, in the presence of the public; newspapers published reports on trials of public interest. The adversarial nature of the parties was ensured by the presence at the trial of a prosecutor - a representative of the prosecution and a lawyer defending the interests of the accused. An extraordinary interest in advocacy has arisen in Russian society. Outstanding lawyers F.N. Plevako, A.I. Urusov, V.D. Spasovich, K.K. Arsenyev became famous in this field, laying the foundations of the Russian school of lawyer-speakers. The new judicial system retained a number of class remnants. These included volost courts for peasants, special courts for the clergy, military and high officials. In some national regions, the implementation of judicial reform has been delayed for decades. In the so-called Western Territory (Vilna, Vitebsk, Volyn, Grodno, Kiev, Kovno, Minsk, Mogilev and Podolsk provinces) it began only in 1872 with the creation of magistrates' courts. Justices of the peace were not elected, but appointed for three years. District courts began to be created only in 1877. At the same time, Catholics were prohibited from holding judicial positions. In the Baltic states, the reform began to be implemented only in 1889.

Only at the end of the 19th century. judicial reform was carried out in Arkhangelsk province and Siberia (in 1896), as well as in Central Asia and Kazakhstan (in 1898). Here, too, justices of the peace were appointed, who simultaneously served as investigators; jury trials were not introduced.

Military reforms. Liberal reforms in society, the government's desire to overcome backwardness in the military field, and also to reduce military spending necessitated radical reforms in the army. They were carried out under the leadership of Minister of War D. A. Milyutin. In 1863-1864. reform of military educational institutions began. General education was separated from special education: future officers received general education in military gymnasiums, and professional training in military schools. Mostly children of nobles studied in these educational institutions. For people who did not have a secondary education, cadet schools were created, where representatives of all classes were accepted. In 1868, military gymnasiums were created to replenish the cadet schools.

The Military Law Academy was opened in 1867, and in 1877. Marine Academy. Instead of conscription, all-class military service was introduced. According to the charter approved on January 1, 1874, persons of all classes from the age of 20 (later from the age of 21) were subject to conscription. The total service life for the ground forces was set at 15 years, of which 6 years were active service, 9 years were in reserve. In the navy - 10 years: 7 - active, 3 - in reserve. For persons who received an education, the period of active service was reduced from 4 years (for those who graduated from primary schools) to 6 months (for those who received higher education).

As a result of the reforms, Russia received a massive army that met the requirements of the time. The combat effectiveness of the troops has increased significantly. The transition to universal military service was a serious blow to the class organization of society.

Reforms in the field of education. The education system has also undergone significant restructuring. In June 1864, the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” were approved, according to which such educational institutions could be opened by public institutions and private individuals. This led to the creation of primary schools of various types - state, zemstvo, parish, Sunday, etc. The duration of study in them did not exceed, as rule of three years.

Since November 1864, gymnasiums have become the main type of educational institution. They were divided into classic and real. In the classical ones, a large place was given to ancient languages - Latin and Greek. The period of study in them was initially seven years, and since 1871 - eight years. Graduates of classical gymnasiums had the opportunity to enter universities. Six-year real gymnasiums were designed to prepare “for employment in various branches of industry and trade.”

The main attention was paid to the study of mathematics, natural science, and technical subjects. Access to universities for graduates of real gymnasiums was closed; they continued their studies in technical institutes. The beginning of women's secondary education was laid - women's gymnasiums appeared. But the amount of knowledge given in them was inferior to what was taught in men's gymnasiums. The gymnasium accepted children “of all classes, without distinction of rank or religion,” however, high tuition fees were set. In June 1864, a new charter for universities was approved, restoring the autonomy of these educational institutions. The direct management of the university was entrusted to the council of professors, which elected the rector and deans, asserted educational plans, resolved financial and personnel issues. Higher education for women began to develop. Since gymnasium graduates did not have the right to enter universities, higher women's courses were opened for them in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, and Kyiv. Women began to be admitted to universities, but as auditors.

The Orthodox Church during the period of reforms. Liberal reforms also affected the Orthodox Church. First of all, the government tried to improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1862, a Special Presence was created to find ways to improve the life of the clergy, which included members of the Synod and senior state officials. Social forces were also involved in solving this problem. In 1864, parish trustees arose, consisting of parishioners who not only focused on the study of mathematics, natural science, and technical subjects. Access to universities was closed to graduates of real gymnasiums; they continued their studies at technical institutes.

The beginning of women's secondary education was laid - women's gymnasiums appeared. But the amount of knowledge given in them was inferior to what was taught in men's gymnasiums. The gymnasium accepted children “of all classes, without distinction of rank or religion,” however, high tuition fees were set.

In June 1864, a new charter for universities was approved, restoring the autonomy of these educational institutions. The direct management of the university was entrusted to the council of professors, which elected the rector and deans, approved educational plans, and resolved financial and personnel issues. Higher education for women began to develop. Since gymnasium graduates did not have the right to enter universities, higher women's courses were opened for them in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, and Kyiv. Women began to be admitted to universities, but as auditors.

The Orthodox Church during the period of reforms. Liberal reforms also affected the Orthodox Church. First of all, the government tried to improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1862, a Special Presence was created to find ways to improve the life of the clergy, which included members of the Synod and senior state officials. Social forces were also involved in solving this problem. In 1864, parish trustees arose, consisting of parishioners who not only managed the affairs of the parish, but were also supposed to help improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1869-79 the incomes of parish priests increased significantly due to the abolition of small parishes and the establishment of an annual salary, which ranged from 240 to 400 rubles. Old-age pensions were introduced for clergy.

The liberal spirit of reforms carried out in the field of education also affected church educational institutions. In 1863, graduates of theological seminaries received the right to enter universities. In 1864, children of the clergy were allowed to enter gymnasiums, and in 1866 - into military schools. In 1867, the Synod decided to abolish the heredity of parishes and the right of admission to seminaries for all Orthodox Christians without exception. These measures destroyed class barriers and contributed to the democratic renewal of the clergy. At the same time, they led to the departure from this environment of many young, gifted people who joined the ranks of the intelligentsia. Under Alexander II, the Old Believers were legally recognized: they were allowed to register their marriages and baptisms in civil institutions; they could now hold some public positions and freely travel abroad. At the same time, in all official documents, adherents of the Old Believers were still called schismatics, and they were prohibited from holding public office.

Conclusion: During the reign of Alexander II, liberal reforms were carried out in Russia, affecting all aspects of public life. Thanks to the reforms, significant sections of the population acquired initial skills in management and public work. The reforms laid down traditions, albeit very timid ones, of civil society and the rule of law. At the same time, they retained the class advantages of the nobles, and also had restrictions for the national regions of the country, where the free popular will determines not only the law, but also the personality of the rulers; in such a country, political murder as a means of struggle is a manifestation of the same spirit of despotism, the destruction of which in We set Russia as our task. The despotism of the individual and the despotism of the party are equally reprehensible, and violence is justified only when it is directed against violence." Comment on this document.

The liberation of the peasants in 1861 and the subsequent reforms of the 60-70s became a turning point in Russian history. This period was called by liberal figures the era of “great reforms.” Their consequence was the creation of the necessary conditions for the development of capitalism in Russia, which allowed it to follow the pan-European path.

The country has sharply increased the pace economic development, the transition to a market economy began. Under the influence of these processes, new layers of the population were formed - the industrial bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Peasant and landowner farms were increasingly drawn into commodity-money relations.

The emergence of zemstvos, city self-government, and democratic transformations in the judicial and educational systems testified to Russia's steady, although not so rapid, movement towards the foundations of civil society and the rule of law.

However, almost all reforms were inconsistent and unfinished. They maintained the class advantages of the nobility and state control over society. On the national outskirts, reforms were implemented incompletely. The principle of the autocratic power of the monarch remained unchanged.

The foreign policy of the government of Alexander II in almost all main directions was active. Through diplomatic and military means, the Russian state managed to solve the foreign policy tasks facing it and restore its position as a great power. The borders of the empire expanded due to the Central Asian territories.

The era of “great reforms” became a time of transformation social movements into a force capable of influencing or resisting power. Fluctuations in government policy and the inconsistency of reforms led to an increase in radicalism in the country. Revolutionary organizations took the path of terror, trying to rouse the peasants to revolution by killing the tsar and senior officials.

Zemstvo reform. In the reorganization of the public administration system, one of the first steps was the zemstvo reform. It contributed to the introduction of the village to culture and a more civilized way of life, revitalization of the liberal movement, and strengthened the connection between the intelligentsia and the people. On January 1, 1864, the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” were approved.

All-class elected institutions - zemstvos - became new bodies of local self-government in provinces and districts. Elections to zemstvo administrative bodies - assemblies of councilors (deputies) - were held on the basis of property qualifications, according to curiae. The first curia - landowner - consisted of owners of land from 200 to 800 dessiatines or real estate worth from 15 thousand rubles. The second curia - the city one - united the owners of city industrial and commercial establishments with an annual turnover of at least 6 thousand rubles. and property owners for at least 2 thousand rubles. Elections for the third curia - rural peasant societies - were multi-level.

Zemstvos were elected for three years. The chairman of the zemstvo assembly was the leader of the nobility. Zemstvo assemblies elected executive bodies - zemstvo councils - consisting of a chairman and several members. Council meetings were held once a year. Their competence included the distribution of state and approval of local taxes, local economy, medicine, and education. At the end of the 70s, zemstvos were introduced in 35 of the 59 Russian provinces.

The main problem Preparations for urban reform began in 1861. The project, presented in 1864, was discussed and redone for a long time. The government was afraid of turning city councils into a political platform. The “city regulations” were approved on June 16, 1870. In cities, an estateless city duma (administrative body) and a city government (executive body) were created under the chairmanship of the mayor. Elections to the City Duma were held in three electoral assemblies based on property qualifications. The first electoral assembly included large taxpayers who contributed a third of city taxes, the second - smaller ones who paid the other third of taxes.

The competence of city administration included improvement, development of trade, establishment of hospitals, schools, city taxation. In 1892, self-government was introduced in 621 out of 707 cities.

Judicial reform. One of the most radical reforms of the 60s was the judicial one. In 1864, a decree on judicial reform was promulgated. She introduced general judicial rules for persons of all classes, with a general procedure for legal proceedings.

New principles were introduced - trial by jury, transparency and competitiveness of legal proceedings, equal responsibility of everyone before the court, independence of the court from the administration. Two types of courts were introduced - world and general. Magistrates' courts, represented by a magistrate judge, considered criminal and civil cases in which the damage did not exceed 500 rubles. Justices of the peace were elected by district zemstvo assemblies, confirmed by the Senate and could be dismissed only at their own request or by court.

The general court consisted of three instances: the district court, the judicial chamber, and the Senate. District courts heard serious civil and criminal (jury) cases. The Senate was the highest court. Military reform. With the abolition of serfdom, it became necessary to reform the army. The initiator and leader of the military reform was General D.A. Milyutin, who headed

In 1862, the reform of military administration began. For operational command of troops, the country was divided into 15 military districts. The War Ministry and the General Staff were reorganized.

Over three years - from 1864 to 1867 - the size of the army decreased from 1132 thousand people to 742 thousand, while maintaining its military potential.

Preparations for reforms in the fleet began even before the Crimean War. The head of the naval department, Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich, and his associates developed a number of projects according to which the management of the fleet and naval educational institutions was reorganized in the 60s.

In 1865, military judicial reform began on the principles of openness and competitiveness of the judicial process. In the 60s, at the insistence of the War Ministry, railways were built to the western and southern borders of Russia, and in 1870 railway troops appeared.

During the 70s, the technical re-equipment of the army was largely completed. Military theorists M.I. Dragomirov, D.A. a split grew between the democratic forces that quickly evolved to the left and the conservatives, who managed to win over the tsar to their side. At the same time, the liberal “center”, which could balance the extreme movements, was still very weak, subject to attacks and persecution by the authorities and merciless criticism from the revolutionaries. Its main postulates were: the free development of the human personality, state guarantees of respect for the rights and freedoms of citizens, the inviolability of private property, freedom of economic competition, ideological and political pluralism, the denial of revolutionary violence and commitment to evolutionary methods of social development. Translated into the language of practical politics, this meant that the liberals were supporters of the elimination of all class privileges, the involvement of zemstvo and city public figures in lawmaking and government of the country, alleviating the situation of the peasantry and introducing them to culture. The most prominent representatives of liberalism in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. there were K. D. Kavelin, B. N. Chicherin, V. A. Goltsev, and among the liberal press organs, the magazines “Bulletin of Europe”, “Russian Thought” and others stood out. However, in the conditions of autocratic Russia, liberalism was doomed for a long period " uterine" development, remaining organizationally unformed and trying to find a foothold in zemstvos, city councils, universities and various scientific societies.

World historical theory

Materialist historians(I.A. Fedosov and others) define the period of abolition of serfdom as a sharp transition from a feudal socio-economic formation to a capitalist one. They believe that the abolition of serfdom in Russia late, and the reforms that followed it were carried out slowly and incompletely. Half-heartedness in carrying out reforms caused indignation among the advanced part of society- the intelligentsia, which then resulted in terror against the tsar. Marxist revolutionaries believed that the country was “led” down the wrong path of development- “slowly cutting off the rotting parts”, but it was necessary to “lead” along the path of a radical solution to problems - carrying out the confiscation and nationalization of landowners’ lands, the destruction of the autocracy, etc.

Liberal historians contemporaries of the events, V.O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911), S.F. Platonov (1860-1933) and others, welcomed both the abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms. Defeat in the Crimean War, they believed, revealed Russia's technical lag behind attack and undermined the country's international prestige.

Later liberal historians ( I. N. Ionov, R. Pipes, etc.) began to note that in in the middle of the nineteenth century, serfdom reached its highest point of economic efficiency. The reasons for the abolition of serfdom are political. Russia's defeat in the Crimean War dispelled the myth of the military power of the Empire, caused irritation in society and a threat to the stability of the country. The interpretation focuses on the cost of reform. Thus, the people were not historically prepared for drastic socio-economic changes and “painfully” accepted the changes in their lives. The government did not have the right to abolish serfdom and carry out reforms without comprehensive socio-moral training of the entire people, especially nobles and peasants. According to liberals, the centuries-old way of Russian life cannot be changed by force.

ON THE. Nekrasov in his poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'” writes:

The great chain has broken,

tore and hit:

one end on the master,

others - man!...

Historians of the technological direction (V. A. Krasilshchikov, S. A. Nefedov, etc.) believe that the abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms are due to the stage of Russia’s modernization transition from a traditional (agrarian) society to an industrial one. The transition from traditional to industrial society in Russia was carried out by the state during the period of influence from the 17th-18th centuries. European cultural and technological circle (modernization - Westernization) and took the form of Europeanization, that is, a conscious change in traditional national forms according to the European model.

“Machine progress V Western Europe“forced” tsarism to actively to impose industrial order. And this determined the specifics of modernization in Russia. The Russian state, selectively borrowing technical and organizational elements from the West, simultaneously preserved traditional structures. As a result, the country has developed situation of “overlapping historical eras” ”(industrial - agrarian), which later led to social.

shocks came into sharp conflict with all the fundamental conditions of Russian life and should inevitably give rise to protest both against the autocracy, which did not give the desired freedom to the peasant, and against the private owner, a figure previously alien to Russian life. The industrial workers who appeared in Russia as a result of industrial development inherited the hatred of the entire Russian peasantry with its centuries-old communal psychology towards private property.

Tsarism interpreted as a regime forced to industrialize but unable to cope with its consequences.

Local historical theory.

The theory is represented by the works of Slavophiles and Narodniks. Historians believed that Russia, unlike Western countries, follows its own special path of development. They justified the possibility in Russia of a non-capitalist path of development to socialism through the peasant community.

Reforms of Alexander II

Land reform. The main question in Russia during the 18th-19th centuries there was a land-peasant system. Catherine II raised this question in the work of the Free Economic Society, which reviewed several dozen programs for the abolition of serfdom by both Russian and foreign authors. Alexander I issued a decree “On Free Plowmen,” which allowed landowners to free their peasants from serfdom along with the land for a ransom. Nicholas I During the years of his reign, he created 11 secret committees on the peasant issue, whose task was to abolish serfdom and resolve the land issue in Russia.

In 1857, by decree of Alexander II started to work secret committee on the peasant question, whose main task was the abolition of serfdom with the mandatory allocation of land to peasants. Then such committees were created in the provinces. As a result of their work (and the wishes and orders of both landowners and peasants were taken into account) there was a reform has been developed to abolish serfdom for all regions of the country, taking into account local specifics. For different areas there were the maximum and minimum values of the allotment transferred to the peasant are determined.

Emperor On February 19, 1861, he signed a number of laws. Was here Manifesto and Regulations on the granting of freedom to the peasants us, documents on the entry into force of the Regulations, on the management of rural communities, etc.

Abolition of serfdom was not a one-time event. First, landowner peasants were freed, then appanage peasants and those assigned to factories. Peasants received personal freedom, but the land remained the property of the landowners, and while plots were allocated, peasants were in the position of “temporarily obligated” bore duties in favor of the landowners, which were essentially no different from the previous serfs. The plots transferred to the peasants were on average 1/5 smaller than those they had previously cultivated. To these lands buyout agreements were concluded, after this, the “temporarily obligated” state ceased, the treasury paid for the land with the landowners, the peasants - with the treasury for 49 years at the rate of 6% per annum (redemption payments).

Use of land and relationships with authorities were built through the community. It was preserved as a guarantor of peasant payments. The peasants were attached to society (the world).

As a result of reforms serfdom was abolished- that “obvious and palpable evil”, which in Europe was directly called “ Russian slavery." However, the land problem was not solved, since the peasants, when dividing the land, were forced to give the landowners a fifth of their plots.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, the first Russian revolution broke out in Russia, a peasant revolution largely in terms of the composition of the driving forces and the tasks that faced it. This is what made P.A. Stolypin to implement land reform, allowing peasants to leave the community. The essence of the reform was to resolve the land issue, but not through the confiscation of land from the landowners, as the peasants demanded, but through the redistribution of the land of the peasants themselves.

Liberal reforms of the 60-70s

Zemstvo and city reforms. The principle of 1864. zemstvo reform consisted of election and classlessness. In the provinces and districts of Central Russia and part of Ukraine zemstvos were established as local government bodies. Elections to zemstvo assemblies were carried out on the basis of property, age, education and a number of other qualifications. Women and employees were deprived of the right to participate in elections. This gave an advantage to the wealthiest segments of the population. The meetings elected zemstvo councils. Zemstvos were in charge affairs of local importance, promoted entrepreneurship, education, healthcare - carried out work for which the state did not have the funds.

Conducted in 1870 urban reform in character she was close to the zemstvo. In large cities city councils were established on the basis of all-estate elections. However, elections were held on a licensing basis, and, for example, in Moscow only 4% of the adult population participated in them. The city councils and the mayor decided internal self-government issues, education and medical care . For control for zemstvo and city activities it was created presence on city affairs.

Judicial reform. New judicial statutes were approved on November 20, 1864. The judicial power was separated from the executive and legislative. A classless and public court was introduced, and the principle of irremovability of judges was established. Two types of court were introduced - general (crown) and magistrate. The general court was in charge of criminal cases. Trial became open, although in a number of cases cases were heard behind closed doors. An adversarial court was established, the positions of investigators were introduced, and the legal profession was established. The question of the defendant’s guilt was decided by 12 jurors. The most important principle The reform was the recognition of the equality of all subjects of the empire before the law.

For the analysis of civil cases it was introduced Institute of Magistrates. Appeal the authority for the courts was court cases You. The position was introduced notary. Since 1872, major political cases were considered in Special presence of the governing Senate, which simultaneously became the highest court of cassation.

Military reform. After his appointment in 1861, D.A. Milyutin, Minister of War, begins the reorganization of the management of the armed forces. In 1864, 15 military districts were formed, subordinate directly to the Minister of War. In 1867, a military judicial charter was adopted. In 1874, after a long discussion, the tsar approved the Charter on universal military service. A flexible recruitment system was introduced. Recruitment sets were cancelled, and the entire male population over the age of 21 was subject to conscription. The service life was reduced in the army to 6 years, in the navy to 7 years. Clergymen, members of a number of religious sects, the peoples of Kazakhstan and Central Asia, as well as some peoples of the Caucasus and Far North. The only son, the only breadwinner in the family, was exempt from service. In peacetime, the need for soldiers was significantly less than the number of conscripts, so everyone fit for service, with the exception of those who received benefits, drew lots. For those who graduated from primary school, service was reduced to 3 years, for those who graduated from high school - to 1.5 years, and from university or institute - to 6 months.

Financial reform. In 1860 there was State Bank established, happened abolition of the tax-farm 2 system, which was replaced by excise taxes 3(1863). Since 1862 The only responsible manager of budget revenues and expenses was the Minister of Finance; the budget became public. Was done attempt at monetary reform(free exchange of credit notes for gold and silver at the established rate).

Educational reforms. “Regulations on primary public schools” dated June 14, 1864 eliminated the state-church monopoly on education. Now both public institutions and private ones were allowed to open and maintain primary schools persons under control by district and provincial school councils and inspectors. Charter high school introduced the principle of equality of all classes and religions y, but entered tuition fees.

Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real new In classical gymnasiums, mainly humanities were taught, in real ones - natural subjects. After the resignation of the Minister of Public Education A.V. Golovnin (in 1861 D.A. Tolstoy was appointed instead) was accepted new gymnasium regulations, retaining only classical gymnasiums, real gymnasiums were replaced by real schools. Along with male secondary education a system of women's gymnasiums appeared.

University Us tav (1863) provided universities had broad autonomy, elections of rectors and professors were introduced. Management of the educational institution was transferred to the Council of the Prof. Essor, to whom the students were subordinate. Were universities were opened in Odessa and Tomsk, higher courses for women in St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Moscow, Kazan.

As a result of the publication of a number of laws in Russia there was a coherent education system was created, which included primary, secondary and higher educational institutions.

Censorship reform. In May 1862 censorship reform began, were introduced "temporary rules”, which in 1865 were replaced by a new censorship charter. According to the new charter, preliminary censorship was abolished for books of 10 or more printed pages (240 pages); editors and publishers could only be held accountable in court. With special permissions and upon payment of a deposit of several thousand rubles, they were exempt from censorship and periodicals, however, they could be suspended administratively. Only government and scientific publications, as well as literature translated from a foreign language.

The preparation and implementation of reforms were an important factor in the socio-economic development of the country. Administratively, the reforms were quite well prepared, but public opinion did not always keep up with the ideas of the reformer tsar. The diversity and speed of transformations gave rise to a feeling of uncertainty and confusion in thoughts. People lost their bearings, organizations professing extremist, sectarian principles appeared.

For economy Post-reform Russia is characterized by rapid development commodity-money relations. Celebrated growth of sown areas and agricultural production, but performance Agriculture remained low. Harvests and food consumption (except bread) were 2-4 times lower than in Western Europe. At the same time in the 80s. compared to the 50s. The average annual grain harvest increased by 38%, and its export increased by 4.6 times.

The development of commodity-money relations led to property differentiation in the countryside, middle peasant farms went bankrupt, and the number of poor people grew. On the other side, strong kulak farms appeared, some of which used agricultural machines. All this was part of the plans of the reformers. But completely unexpectedly for them in the country the traditionally hostile attitude towards trade has intensified That is, to all new forms of activity: to a kulak, a merchant, a buyer - to a successful entrepreneur.

In Russia large industry was created and developed as a state. The government's main concern after failures Crimean War there were enterprises that produced military equipment. Russia's military budget in general terms was inferior to that of England, France, and Germany, but in the Russian budget it had a greater weight. Particular attention was paid to development of heavy industry and transport. It was in these areas that the government directed funds, both Russian and foreign.

The growth of entrepreneurship was controlled by the state based on the issuance of special orders, That's why the big bourgeoisie was closely associated with the state. Fast the number of industrial workers increased, however, many workers retained economic and psychological ties to the village; they carried within them the charge of discontent of the poor who had lost their land and were forced to seek food in the city.

The reforms laid the foundation new system loan. For 1866-1875 was 359 joint-stock commercial banks, mutual credit societies and other financial institutions were created. Since 1866 they began to actively participate in their work largest European banks. As a result of government regulation, foreign loans and investments went mainly to railway construction. Railways ensured the expansion of the economic market across the vast expanses of Russia; they were also important for the rapid transfer of military units.

In the second half of the 19th century political situation has changed several times in the country.

During the period of preparation of the reforms, from 1855 to 1861, the government retained the initiative of action and attracted all supporters of the reforms - from the highest bureaucracy to the democrats. Subsequently, difficulties in carrying out reforms aggravated the internal political situation in the country. The government’s struggle with opponents “from the left” became brutal: the suppression of peasant uprisings, the arrests of liberals, the defeat of the Polish uprising. The role of the III Security (gendarmerie) department has strengthened.

IN 1860s a radical movement entered the political arena - populists. The common intelligentsia, relying on revolutionary democratic ideas and nihilism DI. Pisareva, created theory revolutionary populism . The populists believed in the possibility of achieving socialism, bypassing capitalism, through the liberation of the peasant community - the rural "world". "Rebel" M.A. Bakunin predicted a peasant revolution, the fuse of which was to be lit by the revolutionary intelligentsia. P.N. Tkachev was the theorist of a coup d'etat, after which the intelligentsia, having carried out the necessary transformations, would liberate the community. P.L. Lavrov substantiated the idea of thoroughly preparing peasants for the revolutionary struggle. IN 1874 began a mass “going to the people”“, but the agitation of the populists failed to ignite the flame of the peasant uprising.

In 1876 it arose organization "Land and Freedom"", which in 1879 split into two groups.

Group " Black redistribution" led by G.V. Plekhanov paid primary attention to propaganda;

« People's will"led by A.I. Zhelyabov, N.A. Morozov, S.L. Perovskaya in highlighted political struggle. The main means of struggle, according to the “People’s Will”, was individual terror, a regicide that was supposed to serve as a signal for popular uprising. In 1879-1881. Narodnaya Volya held a series assassination attempts on Alexander II.

In a situation of acute political confrontation, the authorities took the path of self-defense. On February 12, 1880 it was created “The Supreme Administrative Commission for the Protection of State Order and Public Peace"led by M.P. Loris-Melikov. Having received unlimited rights, Loris-Melikov achieved a suspension of the terrorist activities of the revolutionaries and some stabilization of the situation. In April 1880 the commission was liquidated; Loris-Melikov was appointed Minister of Internal Affairs and began to prepare the completion of the “great work of state reforms”. The development of draft laws for the final reform laws was entrusted to the “people” - temporary preparatory commissions with broad representation of zemstvos and cities.

On February 5, 1881, the presented bill was approved by Emperor Alexander II. " Loris-Melikov Constitution"provided for the election of "representatives from public institutions..." in higher authorities state power. In the morning March 1, 1881 The emperor appointed a meeting of the Council of Ministers to approve the bill; literally in a few hours Alexander II was killed members of the People's Will organization.

New emperor Alexander III On March 8, 1881, he held a meeting of the Council of Ministers to discuss the Loris-Melikov project. At the meeting, the chief prosecutor sharply criticized the “constitution” Holy Synod K.P. Pobedonostsev and the head of the State Council S.G. Stroganov. Loris-Melikov's resignation soon followed.

IN May 1883 Alexander III proclaimed a course called in historical materialist literature “ counter-reforms», and in the liberal-historical - “adjustment of reforms”. He expressed himself as follows.

In 1889, to strengthen supervision over the peasants, the positions of zemstvo chiefs with broad rights were introduced. They were appointed from local noble landowners. Clerks and small traders, as well as other low-income strata of the city, lost their right to vote. Judicial reform has undergone changes. In the new regulations on zemstvos of 1890, class and noble representation was strengthened. In 1882-1884. Many publications were closed, and the autonomy of universities was abolished. Primary schools were transferred to the church department - the Synod.

These events showed the idea of "official nationality""from the time of Nicholas I - slogan " Orthodoxy. Autocracy. Spirit of Humility"was in tune with the slogans of a bygone era. New official ideologists K.P. Pobedonostsev (Chief Prosecutor of the Synod), M.N. Katkov (editor of the Moskovskie Vedomosti), Prince V. Meshchersky (publisher of the newspaper Citizen) omitted the word “people” from the old formula “Orthodoxy, autocracy and the people” as “dangerous”; They preached the humility of his spirit before the autocracy and the church. In practice, the new policy resulted in an attempt to strengthen the state by relying on the noble class traditionally loyal to the throne. Administrative measures were reinforced economic support for landowners.

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