Characteristics of the literary language and its main features. Literary language and its properties. The formation of a cultural linguistic form

As is known, even small ethnic groups, small nationalities, not to mention nations, are internally heterogeneous. They distinguish communities of people by gender, age, social status, territory of residence, level of education, profession, etc. Communication cannot be completely uniform, covering both to the same degree all speakers of the same language. For this reason alone, territorial, age-specific, and professional varieties of language should emerge. Here it would be appropriate to compare the speech of poorly educated village residents and the speech of urban government officials. So, the village residents are fellow villagers who know each other well. The topics of their conversation will be known to both the addressee and the recipient of this speech. Moreover, communication between them takes place as a dialogue in which they accept Active participation both sides. This communication is not separated by time or space, it is not professional. The speech habits of city officials in the field of office work naturally differ from village speech habits. Communication between officials takes place mainly in writing; here the document is of great importance. Thus, this communication is indirect. The addressee here is already a stranger, he is of a potential nature, he does not have to be a contemporary, the subject of the document may be little familiar to him or completely unfamiliar. The content of the document itself (i.e., the subject of speech? is not simple, it requires special training, professionalization of speech, special design, terminology). And the receiver of the speech is required to understand all this.

In different eras, different nations and nationalities, in unequal historical conditions specific systems of social variants of language are formed - social stratifications of languages. A need arose for a single so-called supra-territorial version of the language for the state with special communicative properties (increased accuracy of speech, the ability to convey a variety of logical relations, stability over time, specialization, etc.). After all, state power must convey its orders to all residents of the country; these orders must be understandable to everyone. This need is satisfied by the emergence of its own literary language.

Literary language– a national written language, the language of official and business documents, schooling, written communication, science of journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture, expressed in verbal form (written and sometimes oral), perceived by the speakers of this language as exemplary. Literary language is the language of literature in a broad sense. The Russian literary language functions both in oral form and in written form.

The main features of a literary language include:

1) presence of writing;

2) normalization- enough sustainable way expressions that express historically established patterns of development of the Russian literary language. Standardization is based on the language system and is enshrined in the best examples literary works. This method of expression is preferred by the educated part of society;

3) codification, i.e., fixedness in scientific literature; this is expressed in the availability of grammatical dictionaries and other books containing rules for the use of languages;

4) stylistic diversity, i.e. the variety of functional styles of the literary language;

5) relative stability;

6) prevalence;

7) common use;

8) universal obligatory;

9) compliance with the use, customs and capabilities of the language system.

The protection of the literary language and its norms is one of the main tasks of speech culture. Literary language unites people linguistically. The leading role in the creation of a literary language belongs to the most advanced part of society.

Each of the languages, if it is sufficiently developed, has two main functional varieties: literary language and living spoken language. Each person masters live spoken language with early childhood. The mastery of a literary language occurs throughout human development, right up to old age. Literary language must be generally understandable, that is, accessible to all members of society. Literary language must be developed to such an extent as to be able to serve the main areas of human activity. In speech, it is important to observe the grammatical, lexical, spelling and accentological norms of the language. Based on this, an important task for linguists is to consider everything new in a literary language from the point of view of compliance with the general patterns of language development and the optimal conditions for its functioning.

Ticket 1. Literary language. Main features.

Literary language is a national language of writing, the language of official and business documents, school teaching, written communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture expressed in verbal form (written and sometimes oral), perceived by native speakers of this language as exemplary. The Russian literary language functions both in oral form and in written form.

Literary language cannot be identified with the language of fiction. These are different, although correlative concepts.

Signs of a literary language:

1) the presence of writing;

2) normalization is a fairly stable way of expression that expresses historically established patterns of development of the Russian literary language. Normalization is based on the language system and is enshrined in the best examples of literary works;

Language assessment system:

Right - wrong (norm - error). Example: Ringing - Ringing.

That's right - that's right. Example: cottage cheese - cottage cheese.

Correct - acceptable (in the dictionary marked colloquial, prof.). Example: agreement - agreement.

3) codification, i.e. fixed in scientific literature; this is expressed in the availability of grammatical dictionaries and other books containing rules for using the language;

4) stylistic diversity, i.e. the variety of functional styles of the literary language;

5) relative stability;

6) prevalence;

7) common use;

8) universal obligatory;

9) compliance with the use, customs and capabilities of the language system.

Each of the languages, if it is sufficiently developed, has two main functional varieties: literary language and living spoken language. Every person masters live spoken language from early childhood. The mastery of a literary language occurs throughout human development until old age.

Literary language must be generally understandable, that is, accessible to all members of society.

Ticket 2. Literary and national language

It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of Russian national language and Russian literary language. The national language is used in all areas speech activity people, regardless of education, upbringing, place of residence, profession. It includes dialects and jargons, i.e. the national language is heterogeneous: it contains special varieties of language.

Unlike national language literary language is a narrower concept. A literary language is a processed form of the national language, which has, to a greater or lesser extent, written norms.

Literary language is the highest form of the national language, accepted by its speakers as exemplary; it is a historically established system of commonly used linguistic elements, speech means, having undergone long-term cultural processing in the texts of authoritative masters of words, in the oral communication of educated native speakers of the national language. literary language serves various areas human activity: politics, legislation, culture, verbal art, office work, interethnic communication, everyday communication.

Literary language is contrasted with colloquial speech: territorial and social dialects, which are used by limited groups of people living in a certain area or united in relatively small social groups, and vernacular - supra-dialectal uncodified oral speech of limited topics.

There is a relationship between the literary language and these forms of existence of the national language. The literary language is constantly replenished and updated through colloquial speech. Such interaction with colloquial speech is also typical for the Russian literary language.
The development of the literary language is directly related to the development of the culture of the people, especially their fiction, the language of which embodies the best achievements of the national speech culture and the national language as a whole.

The literary language, including the Russian literary language, has a number of features that distinguish it from other forms of existence of the national language. Among them are the following:

1.Traditionality and written fixation (almost all developed literary languages ​​are written).
2. General obligatory norms and their codification.
3. Functioning within the literary language of colloquial speech along with book speech.
4. An extensive multifunctional system of styles and in-depth stylistic differentiation of means of expression in the field of vocabulary, phraseology, word formation.
5. Literary language is characterized by the category of variation, which finds its expression, first of all, in the synonymous series of linguistic units and their variants, which have stylistic and semantic shades.
6. With all the evolutionary changes experienced by the literary language as any living socio-cultural formation, it is characterized by flexible stability, without which the exchange of cultural values ​​between generations of speakers of a given literary language is impossible.

Literary language - see above.

National language is a socio-historical category that denotes a language that is a means of communication of a nation and appears in two forms: oral and written.

The national language is a hierarchical integrity, within which a regrouping of linguistic phenomena occurs, pushing some linguistic phenomena to the periphery, while others enter the core of linguistic communication.

See picture of ticket 3.

Ticket 3. Non-literary forms of the national language.

A territorial dialect is a type of national language spoken by people living in a certain territory. Unlike a literary language, a dialect is limited territorially and functionally, existing only in oral form.

Dialects perform functions different from the literary language. They have different scales of action. Territorial dialects are also called in local dialects, since each dialect is limited to the place of distribution, i.e. certain territory countries, linguistic forms unique to that territory are used. This is due to the fact that the language in a certain territorial space is stratified.

The peculiarity of the territorial dialect is that it is used only in everyday life, that is, when communicating between people in areas not related to business, official public communication.

And, besides the function of everyday communication, territorial dialects do not have any other functions, unlike the literary language, which has many different functions, one of which is communication in everyday life.

Any territorial dialect has its own special, characteristic features or, in other words, has its own norms. These character traits are expressed by sound structure, grammar, vocabulary, word formation, etc. However, these norms cannot be mandatory for everyone.

This is another feature of the territorial dialect, since the norms of the literary language are generally binding for all persons using the language. Therefore, the norms of the territorial dialect can only be called norms conditionally.

Territorial dialects are certain words, phrases that define the name of any objects, actions, phenomena, etc. It happens that the same word in different territorial dialects has different meaning or words or phrases found in a certain territorial dialect coincide in sound or even spelling with a word or phrase in a literary language, but their meaning in the territorial dialect is completely different.

Three main features can be identified that distinguish dialects from the standard language:

1) limited use of a territorial dialect in a certain territory;

2) the territorial dialect performs only one function - communication in everyday life;

3) lack of universal binding for all users of the language.

Social dialect– language of certain social groups. Such a language differs from literary language only in vocabulary. There are professional languages ​​(hunters, shoemakers, fishermen); corporate or group jargon (students, soldiers, etc.); argo is a special language of a limited professional or social group (the language of hunters, fishermen, military men, thieves' argot), which is used to conceal the subject of communication.

Jargon is a social dialect that differs from the general spoken language in specific vocabulary, phraseology and non-verbal features (phonetics and grammar remain literary).

Ticket 4. History of the formation of the Russian language: Common Slavic, Old Russian, Church Slavonic languages.

Slavic branches grow from Indo-European language family. This family also includes Indian (or Indo-Aryan), Iranian Greek, Italic, Romance, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic groups of languages, Armenian, Albanian and other languages. The collapse of the Indo-European linguistic unity is usually attributed to the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. Apparently, processes took place at the same time that led to the emergence Proto-Slavic language, to its isolation from Indo-European.

The Proto-Slavic language is the ancestor language of all Slavic languages. It had no written language and was not recorded in writing. However, it can be restored by comparing Slavic languages ​​with each other, as well as by comparing them with other related ones Indo-European languages. Sometimes a less successful term is used to denote Proto-Slavic Common Slavic: It seems that it is better to call linguistic features or processes characteristic of all Slavic languages ​​even after the collapse of Proto-Slavic as common Slavic.

In the last fifteen to twenty years, words from the English language have been actively penetrating into the Russian language. Sometimes the use of words of English origin is unnecessary: ​​foreign words, which sometimes are not even clear to everyone, replace more familiar words. This spoils speech and violates such qualities as purity and correctness.

But not only other languages ​​influence the Russian language, but also vice versa. So, in the middle of the 20th century after the launch of the first satellites and spaceships words such as “cosmonaut” or “satellite” appeared in all languages ​​of the world.

The Russian language is without a doubt one of the richest and most widely spoken languages ​​in the world and well deserves its place among the so-called world languages. Just like English and other languages ​​used outside the countries for which they are state or official, Russian is widely spoken outside of Russia. The international and interstate areas of its application are very diverse. Thus, it has long acted as the “language of science” - a means of communication between scientists from different countries, as well as the coding and storage of universal knowledge (most of the world’s information is published in English and Russian).
The Russian language is widely used in world communication systems (radio broadcasts, air and space communications, etc.). English, Russian and other world languages ​​are of great importance in the implementation of social functions, for example, as a lingua franca, that is, in this context, an intermediary language in the dissemination of knowledge and equalization of its level in different countries; language of diplomacy, international trade, tourism.
Of course, the role of the Russian language as a world language in education is also important; young people all over the world study in it, and in particular in developing countries. Russian as a world language is characterized by its conscious choice for study and use: recognition of it as a “foreign language,” that is, a subject of teaching in schools and universities around the world; as well as legal recognition as a “working language” in international organizations, as discussed above.
Russian language by absolute number its proficiency ranks fifth in the world after Chinese, Hindi and Urdu together, English and Spanish. It is studied in 1,700 universities in 90 countries, in courses, in schools, etc. to varying degrees up to half a billion people know its perfection. What is also important for a “world language” is the global distribution of native speakers, its coverage of the maximum number of countries, as well as the most influential social strata of the population, for example, the scientific, technical and creative intelligentsia, and the administrative apparatus. Great importance fiction created in this language and the entire culture based on it have global significance. Accordingly, “motivation” is formed in choosing a foreign language for mass learning. The Russian language has all these qualities.
The study of the Russian language, literature and spiritual culture abroad took place in several stages. In XIV - XVII centuries this was determined primarily by the needs of trade and diplomacy. The Russian language was just taking shape at that time. Several grammars and dictionaries have been preserved, compiled by the Germans, French, and Scandinavians and containing practical information about the life, customs and views of Russians. By the way, it was the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century that was the time of the birth of linguistics in Russia, that is, the manifestation of natural scientific interest in an already fully formed language.
In the 18th century, interest in Russia, which had already become a European power, intensified. In the 19th century, classical Russian literature came into the sphere of European attention - especially works. At the end of the 19th century, all Russian universities studied foreign students, who specialized in the field of Russian studies and subsequently formed schools of Russian studies in their homeland. Departments of Slavic studies were opened in universities in many countries - in France, Great Britain, Italy, Austria-Hungary, etc.
At the beginning of the 20th century, Russian language and literature became subjects of teaching primarily in countries with large Russian emigration (France, Canada, USA). In some states, for example in Bulgaria, Russian was the main language for almost two centuries. foreign language. It was studied everywhere by the peoples who were part of former USSR. After the Second World War, when the USSR took its place among the leading world powers, and also in connection with the successes of the Soviet cosmonautics, the study of the Russian language outside of Russia became widespread and was included in the secondary education programs of many countries. There is a peculiar proportion: a language is studied the more widely, the more people in the world have already learned it and the more it is used for one purpose or another.
Before the collapse of the USSR, 20-24 million schoolchildren, students and other people studied Russian, mainly in countries of Eastern Europe and other former socialist states. It was recognized as the language of interethnic communication among all the peoples of the current “near abroad”, even the “second native language” of non-Russian peoples living in the USSR.
In the 90s, the number of people studying Russian in the world (excluding the former republics of the USSR) was already estimated at 10-12 million people, and the number of people studying Russian in Eastern European countries decreased, while in developed countries and a number of other countries it increased. The volume of educational tourism also increased when foreigners began to come to Russia specifically to study the Russian language. Moreover, these were not always people with high incomes: they were brought to Russia by the desire to learn a language, the role of which in the world, as they rightly believed, would increase even more in the near future. Thus, the abolition of compulsory study of the Russian language in those countries that provided high statistics led to an improvement in the quality of mastery of the Russian language by those who study it according to free choice. In addition, the increase in the level of mastery of the Russian language was facilitated by the liberation of its teaching from ideological overtones and political and educational functions.
Like other languages ​​of wide international study and use, the Russian language entered the “club of world languages” due to the action of social and linguistic factors. The first are associated with the significance of the native speaker people in the history of mankind and their role and authority in the modern world. The latter facilitate or hinder the action of social factors.
The degree of suitability of a language (convenience, economy, adaptability to conveying meaning expressed in other languages, etc.) for recording, storing and using various information - trade, industrial, scientific, cultural, etc. is essential. The information value of a language is direct depends on the quantity and quality of information presented in a given language in original and translated publications and is related to the ease of use for speakers of other languages.
The Russian language is distinguished by its high information content, that is, the ability to store in its system the maximum experience of communication and verbal creativity, proven means and possibilities for expressing and transmitting thoughts.
In specific linguistic terms, the development of semantics, both lexical and grammatical, especially syntactic, is essential; stylistic and other differentiation of the dictionary, in particular the presence of special terminologies; the adaptability of language to express the subtlest shades of thoughts; the stability of the generally accepted standard (literary language), the degree of its normalization, as well as the nature of writing, etc. A language, whose functions include the function of an international intermediary, should not become similar to other languages, but must express everything that is expressed in them (this thesis is associated with the concept of “intertranslatability” - the transfer of all meanings expressed in other languages).
The Russian language, which has retained its uniqueness and identity for a long time, having spread over a vast space, has absorbed the riches of the languages ​​of the West and East, having adopted the Greek-Byzantine, Latin, Eastern and Old Slavonic heritage. He mastered the achievements of the new languages ​​of the Romance and Germanic areas of Europe. However, the main source of its development, processing and polishing has always remained the creative work of the Russian people, especially generations of Russian and Russian figures in science, politics, technology, culture and literature. The Russian language has become a highly developed, rich, revealed in its capabilities, ordered, stylistically differentiated, historically balanced language, capable of serving the needs - both national and universal.

Ticket 7. Communicative qualities of speech

Ticket 8. Correct speech. Language norm. Types of norms of the Russian language.

Correctness is considered the main communicative quality of speech, since it underlies other qualities and is their a necessary condition. As B. N. Golovin notes, “there is no correctness; other communicative qualities cannot “work”: accuracy, logic, appropriateness, etc.”

The correctness of speech can be defined as the correspondence of its linguistic structure to those accepted in given time literary standards. It is based on a solid foundation of norms, quite fully and consistently reflected in grammars, reference books, dictionaries, and teaching aids.

Language norm- a historically determined set of commonly used linguistic means, as well as the rules for their selection and use, recognized by society as the most suitable in a specific historical period. A norm is one of the essential properties of a language that ensures its functioning and historical continuity due to its inherent stability, although not excluding the variability of linguistic means and noticeable historical variability, since the norm is designed, on the one hand, to preserve speech traditions, and on the other, to satisfy current and the changing needs of society. A special case of a language norm is a literary norm.

A literary norm is distinguished by a number of properties: it is uniform and universally binding for all speakers of a given language; it is conservative and aimed at preserving the means and rules for their use accumulated in a given society by previous generations. At the same time, it is not static, but, firstly, changes over time and, secondly, provides for the dynamic interaction of different methods linguistic expression depending on the conditions of communication.

The linguistic norm is the result collective ideas about language, but is based on the private, individual use of linguistic means in the process of speech activity of each native speaker individually.

The language norm is fixed in normative dictionaries and grammars. A significant role in the dissemination and preservation of norms belongs to fiction, theater, school education and media .

In accordance with level correlation and specificity, the following types of language norms are distinguished:

lexical - ensure the correct choice of words; accentological - provide for the correct placement of stress; orthoepic - describe correct pronunciation words; orthographic - reinforce the uniformity of speech in writing; morphological - rules of inflection and word formation described in grammars; syntactic - regulate the correct construction of grammatical structures.

Morphological and syntactic norms are included in the number of grammatical normal

Ticket 9. Speech accuracy. Lexical norms of the Russian language

Concept of speech accuracy

Accuracy ¾ is a communicative quality of speech that presupposes compliance of its semantic side (plan of content) with the reflected reality and is manifested in the ability to find an adequate verbal expression of a concept.

Accuracy, therefore, includes the ability to: 1) correctly reflect reality and 2) correctly express thoughts and formulate them using words. There are two types of accuracy: subject (factual) and conceptual (speech, communicative).

Subject accuracy is created due to the correspondence of the content of speech to the fragment of reality reflected in it. It is based on the relationship between speech and reality. The main condition for substantive accuracy is knowledge of the subject of speech, without which it is impossible to give correct information about reality. An example of a violation of subject accuracy is the statement The sun revolves around the Earth. True, sometimes it is necessary to talk about the correspondence of thoughts to reality in a very conditional manner. The speaker (writer) does not always convey to the addressee thoughts that reflect actually occurring events (for example, many thoughts expressed in works of art). From a linguistic point of view, it is important that thoughts (adequate or inadequate to the reflected reality) are correctly expressed and arouse an adequate thought ¾ copy in the consciousness of the addressee.

In order for speech to be accurate, substantive accuracy alone is not enough; the content also needs to correspond to the system of concepts that is indicated in it, i.e., conceptual accuracy is needed.

Conceptual accuracy is based on the connection: word-concept and consists in the correspondence of the semantics of speech components to the content and scope of the concepts they express. It presupposes the ability to accurately denote with a word the idea that has arisen, to find the only correct word.

Conceptual accuracy depends primarily on the ability to choose words correctly and use them in their exact meanings, that is, in those meanings that are assigned to them in the literary language system and recorded in special reference literature. This allows us to consider the accuracy of speech as lexical-semantic correctness, i.e., as compliance with the lexical-semantic norms of the literary language. However, accuracy, unlike correctness, which is based only on linguistic factors, is also based on extralinguistic factors; it is based on the connection: speech ¾ reality, word ¾ concept. A statement may be correct in terms of format, but not accurate in terms of content. For example, a grammatically correct sentence The atom is indivisible is inaccurate because its content does not correspond to reality. Or compare the sentence from the story “The Avenger” in the first and second editions:

Book replacement behold(“to contemplate, to see someone in close proximity”) in words see And touch dictated not by the correction of incorrectness, but by the desire for greater accuracy of expression.

Lexical norms

Lexical norms, i.e., the rules for using words in speech, require special attention. M. Gorky taught that words must be used with the strictest precision. The word must be used in the meaning (literal or figurative) that it has and which is recorded in the Russian language dictionaries. Violation of lexical norms leads to a distortion of the meaning of the statement. There are many examples of inaccurate use of individual words. So, the adverb somewhere has one meaning - “in some place”, “unknown where” (music started playing somewhere). However, in Lately this word began to be used in the meaning “about, approximately, once”: Somewhere in the 70s of the 19th century; The classes were planned to be held sometime in June; The plan was fulfilled by about 102%.

The frequent use of the word order in the meaning of “a little more”, “a little less” should be considered a speech defect. In Russian there are words to denote this concept: approximately, approximately. But some people use the word order instead. Here are examples from the speeches: Before the revolution, about 800 people studied in the city’s schools, and now there are about 10 thousand; The living area of ​​the constructed houses is about 2.5 million square meters, and the green ring around the city is about 20 thousand hectares; The damage caused to the city amounts to about 300 thousand rubles.

Words somewhere, of the order in the meaning of “about”, “approximately” are often found in colloquial speech:

How many examples are selected on the topic?

Somewhere around 150.

How many printed sheets are checked?

About three printed sheets.

What weather is expected?

In the near future the weather will be somewhere around zero degrees (Recording of oral speech),

An error is also the incorrect use of the verb lozhet instead of put. The verbs lay and put have the same meaning, but put is a commonly used literary word, and lozhit is a colloquial word. The expressions sound unliterary: I put the book back in its place; He puts the folder on the table, etc. In these sentences, the verb to put should be used: I put the books in place; He puts the folder on the table. It is also necessary to pay attention to the use of prefixed verbs put, fold, fold. Some people say put it in its place, put the numbers together, instead of put it in its place correctly, add the numbers.

Violations of lexical norms are sometimes due to the fact that speakers confuse words that are similar in sound but different in meaning. For example, the verbs provide and submit are not always used correctly. Sometimes we hear incorrect expressions like: The Word is presented to Petrov; Let me introduce you to Dr. Petrov. The verb to provide means “to give the opportunity to use something” (to provide an apartment, vacation, position, credit, loan, rights, independence, word, etc.), and the verb to present means “to transfer, give, present something, to anyone” (submit a report, certificate, facts, evidence; submit for an award, for an order, for a title, for a prize, etc.). The above sentences with these verbs correctly sound like this: The floor is given to Petrov; Let me introduce you to Dr. Petrov.

Sometimes the nouns stalagmite and stalactite are used incorrectly. These words differ in meaning: stalagmite - a conical limestone build-up on the floor of a cave, gallery (cone up); stalactite - a conical limestone growth on the ceiling or vault of a cave or gallery (cone down).

The words differ in their meaning: college (secondary or higher educational institution in England, USA) and college (secondary educational institution in France, Belgium, Switzerland); effective (effective, leading to the desired results) and spectacular (producing a strong impression, effect); offensive (causing offense, insulting) and touchy (easily offended, inclined to see offense, insult where there is none).

Recently, the following phrases have begun to be heard more and more often in radio and television programs: A team of athletes is doomed to win; The ensemble's performance is doomed to success; He is doomed to be a genius; The planned events are doomed to prosperity. Speakers do not take into account either the origin of the word, or its internal form, or its original meaning. In all of the above sentences we are talking about positive results (victory, success, prosperity), while the verb to condemn means “to prescribe, by force of circumstances to forcefully put in some conditions.” Let us recall the lines from the works of the classics:

Their villages and fields for the violent raid / He condemned them to swords and fires (Pushkin); It was not I who doomed your youth/ To a life without happiness and freedom (Nekrasov); Everyone even became scared when they realized what loneliness he had doomed himself to (Gorky).

To clarify the lexical norms of the modern literary language, it is recommended to take explanatory dictionaries Russian language, special reference literature: “Correctness of Russian speech: Dictionary-reference book” (compilers); “Difficulties of word usage and variants of norms of the Russian literary language: Dictionary-reference book” (ed.); “Difficulties of the Russian language: Dictionary-reference book for journalists” (ed.); “Grammatical correctness of Russian speech: Experience of a frequency-stylistic dictionary of variants” (,), etc.

Ticket 10. Expressiveness, richness, purity of speech. Speech etiquette.

Expressiveness and its basic conditions

The expressiveness of speech is understood as such features of its structure that make it possible to enhance the impression of what is said (written), to arouse and maintain the attention and interest of the addressee, to influence not only his mind, but also his feelings and imagination.

The expressiveness of speech depends on many reasons and conditions, both linguistic and extralinguistic.

One of the main conditions for expressiveness is the independence of thinking of the author of the speech, which presupposes a deep and comprehensive knowledge and understanding of the subject of the message. Knowledge extracted from any sources must be mastered, processed, and deeply comprehended. This gives the speaker (writer) confidence, makes his speech convincing and effective. If the author does not properly think through the content of his statement, does not comprehend the issues that he will present, his thinking cannot be independent, and his speech cannot be expressive.

To a large extent, the expressiveness of speech depends on the attitude of the author to the content of the statement. The inner conviction of the speaker (writer) in the significance of the statement, interest, and concern for its content gives speech (especially oral) an emotional coloring. An indifferent attitude to the content of the statement leads to a dispassionate presentation of the truth, which cannot influence the feelings of the addressee.

In direct communication, the relationship between the speaker and the listener is also important, the psychological contact between them, which arises primarily on the basis of joint mental activity: the addresser and the addressee must solve the same problems, discuss the same issues: the first ¾ outlining the topic of his message, the second ¾ following for the development of his thoughts. In establishing psychological contact, what is important is the attitude of both the speaker and the listener to the subject of speech, their interest, and indifference to the content of the statement.

Except deep knowledge the subject of the message, expressiveness of speech also presupposes the ability to convey knowledge to the addressee, arouse his interest and attention. This is achieved by careful and skillful selection of linguistic means, taking into account the conditions and tasks of communication, which in turn requires a good knowledge of the language, its expressive capabilities and features of functional styles.

One of the prerequisites for verbal expressiveness is skills that allow you to easily select the language means needed in a particular act of communication. Such skills are developed through systematic and deliberate training. The means of training speech skills is careful reading of exemplary texts (fiction, journalistic, scientific), close interest in their language and style, attentive attention to the speech of people who can speak expressively, as well as self-control (the ability to control and analyze one’s speech from the point of view of its expressiveness ).

The verbal expressiveness of an individual also depends on the conscious intention to achieve it, on the author’s target setting for it.

TO expressive means language usually includes tropes (figurative use of linguistic units) and stylistic figures, calling them figurative and expressive means. However, the expressive capabilities of language are not limited to this; in speech, any unit of language at all its levels (even a separate sound) can become a means of expressiveness, as well as non-verbal means(gestures, facial expressions, pantomime).

The concept of purity of speech

Pure speech is speech in which there are no linguistic elements alien to the literary language, as well as words and phrases rejected by moral norms. Purity of speech presupposes compliance not only with linguistic (primarily ¾ stylistic in the field of pronunciation and word usage), but also with ethical standards.

This quality of speech is inextricably linked with its correctness and is based on it. This connection is manifested in the fact that purity of speech in pronunciation is achieved through strict adherence to spelling standards: what corresponds to the norms of orthoepy is recognized as both correct and pure.

“Purity of speech at the level of word usage should be understood somewhat differently. Here the quantitative characteristics of the words of one or another semantic group used in speech become important. An increase in the number of such words in speech leads to a decrease in its stylistic qualities, when we are forced to talk about speech clogging.”

Purity of speech presupposes the stylistically justified use, firstly, of literary language units (foreign words and expressions, speech cliches, as well as words and expressions that do not carry any semantic load in speech and therefore turn into weeds), and secondly, extraliterary linguistic elements (dialectisms ¾ territorial dialects; professionalisms ¾ words limited in their use by the framework of any profession; jargons ¾ words and verbal expressions used in jargons, socially limited areas; vulgarisms ¾ words and expressions roughly, vulgarly denoting some range of objects, phenomena and degrading dignity and honor of a person).

Concept of speech richness

The level of speech culture depends not only on knowledge of the norms of the literary language, the laws of logic and strict adherence to them, but also on the possession of its riches and the ability to use them in the process of communication.

The Russian language is rightly called one of the richest and most developed languages ​​in the world. Its wealth lies in the innumerable supply of vocabulary and phraseology, in the semantic richness of the dictionary, in the limitless possibilities of phonetics, word formation and word combinations, in the variety of lexical, phraseological and grammatical synonyms and variants, syntactic structures and intonations. All this allows you to express the subtlest semantic and emotional shades. “There is nothing in the world, in the life around us and in our consciousness, ¾ says Sky, ¾ that could not be conveyed in Russian words: the sound of music, and... the brilliance of colors, and the sound of rain, and the fabulousness of dreams, and the heavy the rumble of a thunderstorm, and the babble of children, and the mournful roar of the surf, and anger, and great joy, and the sorrow of loss, and the exultation of victory."

The richness of an individual’s speech is determined by what arsenal of linguistic means he owns and how skillfully, in accordance with the content, topic and purpose of the statement, he uses them in a specific situation. Speech is considered richer the more widely it uses a variety of means and ways of expressing the same thought, the same grammatical meaning, the less often the same linguistic unit is repeated without a special communicative task.

Speech etiquette

Etiquette is a set of accepted rules that determine the order of any activity. Along with this word, the word regulation and the phrase diplomatic protocol are used. Many of the subtleties of communication represented by the protocol are taken into account in other areas of business relations. In business circles, business etiquette is becoming increasingly widespread, especially recently.
Business etiquette involves observing norms of behavior and communication. Since communication is a human activity, a process in which he participates, when communicating, the features of speech etiquette. Speech etiquette refers to the developed rules of speech behavior, a system of speech formulas for communication.
The degree of proficiency in speech etiquette determines the degree of professional suitability of a person. This primarily applies to civil servants, politicians, teachers, lawyers, doctors, managers, entrepreneurs, journalists, service workers, that is, to those who, by the nature of their work, constantly communicate with people. Possession of speech etiquette contributes to the acquisition of authority, generates trust and respect. Knowing the rules of speech etiquette and observing them allows a person to feel confident and at ease.
Compliance with speech etiquette by people of the so-called language-intensive professions, in addition, has an educational value and helps to improve both the speech and general culture of society. Strict adherence to the rules of speech etiquette by members of the team of a particular institution, enterprise, etc. creates a favorable impression and maintains the positive reputation of the entire organization.
What factors determine the formation of speech etiquette and its use?
1. Speech etiquette is built taking into account the characteristics of partners entering into business relationships and conducting a business conversation: social status the subject and addressee of communication, their place in the official hierarchy, their profession, nationality, religion, age, gender, character.
2. Speech etiquette is determined by the situation in which communication occurs. This could be a presentation, conference, symposium; a meeting at which the economic and financial situation of a company or enterprise is discussed; hiring or firing; consultation; company anniversary, etc.
In addition, speech etiquette has national specifics. Each nation has created its own system of rules of speech behavior. For example, a feature of the Russian language is the presence in it of two pronouns - you and you, which can be perceived as forms of the second person singular. The choice of one form or another depends on social status interlocutors, the nature of their relationships, and the official/informal setting.
According to the accepted etiquette in Russia, the pronoun you should be used: 1) when addressing an unfamiliar addressee; 2) in an official communication setting; 3) with an emphatically polite, restrained attitude towards the addressee; 4) to an older (by position, age) addressee. The pronoun you is used: 1) when talking with a well-known person with whom friendly relations have been established; 2) in an informal communication setting; 3) with a friendly, familiar, intimate relationship with the addressee; 4) to a younger (by position, age) addressee.
In an official setting, when several people take part in a conversation, Russian speech etiquette recommends even with a well-known person with whom
friendly relations and everyday communication have been established on a first-name basis, switch to you.
Let's pay attention to one more feature. Some people, especially those occupying a higher position than their interlocutor, use the form you when addressing, deliberately emphasizing, demonstrating their “democratic”, “friendly”, patronizing attitude. Most often, this puts the recipient in an awkward position and is perceived as a sign of disdain, an attack on human dignity, and an insult to the individual.
So, taking into account the factors that form and determine speech etiquette, knowledge and compliance with the norms of speech etiquette, creates a favorable climate for relationships, promotes the efficiency and effectiveness of business relationships.

Speech etiquette formulas: main groups
The basis of speech etiquette is speech formulas, the nature of which depends on the characteristics of communication.
Any act of communication has a beginning, a main part and a final part. In this regard, speech etiquette formulas are divided into three main groups: 1) speech formulas related to the beginning of communication; 2) speech formulas used at the end of communication; 3) speech formulas characteristic of the main part of communication. Let's look at what each group is.
1. Start of communication. If the addressee is unfamiliar to the subject of speech, then communication begins with acquaintance. Moreover, it can occur directly or indirectly. According to the rules of good manners, it is not customary to enter into a conversation with a stranger and introduce yourself. However, there are times when this needs to be done. Etiquette prescribes the following formulas:
- Let me get to know you.
- I would like to meet you (you).
- Let me get to know you.
- Let's get acquainted.
When visiting an institution, office, office, when you have a conversation with an official and you need to introduce yourself to him, the following formulas are used:
- Allow me to introduce myself.
– My last name is Kolesnikov.
- Anastasia Igorevna.
Official and informal meetings of acquaintances, and sometimes strangers, begin with a greeting. In Russian, the main greeting is hello. It goes back to the Old Slavonic verb zdravstavat, which means “to be sound,” i.e. healthy. Along with this form, a common greeting indicating the time of the meeting is: Good morning!; Good afternoon!; Good evening!
In addition to commonly used greetings, there are greetings that emphasize the joy of meeting, respectful attitude, and desire for communication: (Very) glad to see you!; Welcome!; My regards.
2. End of communication. When the conversation ends, the interlocutors use formulas for parting and stopping communication. They express wishes (All the best to you! Goodbye!); hope for a new meeting (See you in the evening (tomorrow, Saturday). I hope we will not be apart for long. I hope to see you soon); doubt about the possibility of meeting again (Goodbye! It’s unlikely that we’ll be able to meet again. Don’t remember it badly).
3. After the greeting, a business conversation usually begins. Speech etiquette provides for several principles that are determined by the situation. Three situations are most typical: 1) solemn; 2) mournful; 3) working, business.
The first includes public holidays, anniversaries of the enterprise and employees; receiving awards; opening an office, store; presentation; conclusion of an agreement, contract, etc.
For any special occasion or significant event, invitations and congratulations follow. Depending on the situation (official, semi-official, informal), invitations and greeting cliches change.
Invitation: Let me (permit) invite you...;
Come to the celebration (anniversary, meeting...), we will be glad to see you,”
Congratulations: Please accept my (most) heartfelt (warm, ardent, sincere) congratulations...; On behalf of (on behalf of)… congratulations…; Heartily (warmly) congratulations...
A sad situation is associated with death, death, murder and other events that bring misfortune and grief.
In this case, condolences are expressed. It should not be dry, official. Formulas of condolences, as a rule, are stylistically elevated and emotionally charged: Allow me (allow me) to express (to you) my deep (sincere) condolences. I offer (you) my (accept mine, please accept my) deep (sincere) condolences. I share (understand) your sadness (your grief, misfortune).
The listed beginnings (invitation, congratulations, condolences, expressions of sympathy) do not always turn into business communication, sometimes the conversation ends with them.
In everyday business settings (business, work situations), speech etiquette formulas are also used. For example, when summing up the results of work, when determining the results of selling goods or participating in exhibitions, when organizing various events, meetings, the need arises to thank someone or, conversely, to reprimand or make a remark. At any job, in any organization, someone may have the need to give advice, make a proposal, make a request, express consent, allow, prohibit, or refuse someone.
Here are the speech cliches that are used in these situations.
Expression of gratitude: Allow me to express (great, huge) gratitude to Nikolai Petrovich Bystrov for the excellent (excellent) organized exhibition; The company (directorate, administration) expresses gratitude to all employees for…
Remark, warning: The company (directorate, board, editorial office) is forced to issue a (serious) warning (remark)…; To (great) regret (chagrin), I must (force) make a remark (condemn) ...
Often people, especially those endowed with power, consider it necessary to express their proposals and advice in a categorical form; All (you) are obliged (must)...; I strongly (persistently) advise (suggest) to do...
Advice and suggestions expressed in this form are similar to orders or instructions and do not always give rise to a desire to follow them, especially if the conversation takes place between colleagues of the same rank.
Making a request should be delicate, extremely polite, but without excessive ingratiation: Do me a favor, fulfill (my) request...; Don’t consider it a labor, please take it...
Consent and permission are formulated as follows:
- (Now, immediately) will be done (completed).
- I agree, do (do) as you think.
When refusing, the following expressions are used:
– (I) cannot (unable, unable) to help (allow, assist).
- Sorry, but we (I) cannot (can) fulfill your request.
– I am forced to prohibit (refuse, not allow).
An important component of speech etiquette is a compliment. Said tactfully and at the right time, it lifts the mood of the recipient and sets him up for a positive attitude towards his opponent. A compliment is said at the beginning of a conversation, during a meeting, acquaintance, or during a conversation, when parting. A compliment is always nice. Only an insincere compliment, a compliment for the sake of a compliment, an overly enthusiastic compliment are dangerous.
The compliment refers to appearance, testifies to the excellent professional abilities of the addressee, his high morality, gives an overall positive assessment:
– You look good (excellent, wonderful, excellent, magnificent, young).
– You are (so, very) charming (smart, quick-witted, resourceful, reasonable, practical).
– You are a good (excellent, wonderful, excellent specialist (economist, manager, entrepreneur, partner).
– It’s a pleasure (good, excellent) to do business (work, cooperate) with you.

Addresses in Russian speech etiquette
Address is one of the important and necessary components of speech etiquette. The address is used at any stage of communication, throughout its entire duration, and serves as its integral part. At the same time, the norm for using the address and its form have not been definitively established, cause controversy, and are a sore point of Russian speech etiquette.
This is eloquently stated in a letter published in Komsomolskaya Pravda signed by Andrei: “We, probably, in the only country in the world do not have people turning to each other. We don't know how to contact a person! Man, woman, girl, granny, comrade, citizen - ugh! Or maybe a female person, a male person! And it’s easier - hey!”
To understand the peculiarity of address in the Russian language, you need to know its history. The social stratification of society, the inequality that existed in Russia for several centuries, was reflected in the system of official appeals. The names of ranks were used as addresses (lieutenant general, marshal, cornet, cornet, as well as your excellency, your highness, most gracious sovereign, etc.)
Monarchical system in Russia until the 20th century. preserved the division of people into classes: nobles, clergy, commoners, merchants, townspeople, peasants. Hence the address master, madam in relation to people of privileged social groups; sir, madam - for the middle class or master, mistress for both and the absence of a single address to representatives of the lower class.
In the languages ​​of other civilized countries, unlike Russian, there were addresses that were used both in relation to a person occupying a high position in society and to an ordinary citizen: Mr., Mrs., Miss (England, USA), Signor, Signora, Signorina (Italy ), pan, pani (Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia).
After October revolution All old ranks and titles are abolished by a special decree. Universal equality is proclaimed. The addresses Mr. - Madam, master - lady, sir - madam are gradually disappearing. Instead of all the appeals that existed in Russia, starting from 1917–1918, the appeals citizen and comrade are becoming widespread. The history of these words is remarkable and instructive.
The word citizen is recorded in the monuments of the 11th century. It came to the Russian language from the Old Church Slavonic language and served as a phonetic version of the word city dweller. Both meant “resident of the city (city).” In the 18th century this word takes on the meaning of “a full member of society, the state.” Then it acquires the meaning: “a person who is devoted to the Motherland, serves it and the people, cares about the public good, subordinates personal interests to public ones.”
Why is this public? significant word, as a citizen, died in the 20th century. common way people address each other?
In the 20–30s. a custom arose, and then became the norm when addressing those arrested, prisoners, those on trial to law enforcement officials and vice versa not to say comrade, only citizen: citizen under investigation, citizen judge, citizen prosecutor. As a result, the word citizen for many has become associated with detention, arrest, police, and the prosecutor's office. The negative association gradually became so “grown” to the word that it became an integral part of it, so ingrained in people’s minds that it became impossible to use the word citizen as a commonly used address.
The fate of the word comrade turned out somewhat differently. It is recorded in the monuments of the 15th century. IN Slavic languages this word comes from Turkic, in which the root tavar meant “property, livestock, goods.” Probably, comrade originally meant “companion in trade.” Then the meaning of this word expands: comrade is not only a “companion”, but also a “friend.” With the growth of the revolutionary movement in Russia in early XIX V. the word comrade, like the word citizen in its time, acquires a new socio-political meaning: “a like-minded person fighting for the interests of the people.” Since the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Marxist circles have been created in Russia, their members calling each other comrades. In the first years after the revolution, this word became the main address in Russia.
After Patriotic War the word comrade is gradually beginning to emerge from the everyday informal way people address each other. On the street, in a store, in public transport, the calls man, woman, grandfather, father, granny, boyfriend, auntie, uncle are increasingly heard. Such appeals are not neutral. They may be perceived by the addressee as disrespect for him, unacceptable familiarity.
Since the late 80s. In an official setting, the addresses sir, madam, sir, and madam began to be revived.
Currently, the address Mr., Madam is perceived as the norm at Duma meetings, in television programs, at various symposia and conferences. Among civil servants, businessmen, and entrepreneurs, the norm is becoming Mr., Mrs. in combination with the surname, position, and title.
The address comrade continues to be used by the military, members of communist parties, as well as in many factory teams. Scientists, teachers, doctors, lawyers prefer the words of colleagues and friends. The address respected, respected is found in the speech of the older generation. The words woman, man, which have become widespread in the role of communication, violate the norm of speech etiquette and indicate insufficient culture of the speaker. In this case, it is preferable to start a conversation without addresses, using etiquette formulas: be kind..., be kind..., excuse me..., excuse me...
Thus, the problem of commonly used address remains open. It will be solved only when everyone learns to respect himself and treat others with respect, when he learns to defend his honor and dignity, when he becomes an individual, when it doesn’t matter what position he holds, what his status is. It is important that he is a citizen of the Russian Federation.

Ticket 11. Logical speech. Syntactic norms of the Russian language.

The concept of logic

Logicality of speech is a communicative quality that presupposes the ability to consistently, consistently and with reasoning formulate the expressed content.

Logicity, like accuracy, characterizes speech from the perspective of its content and is formed on the basis of the connection of speech with reality and thinking. But in contrast to accuracy, which evaluates the correspondence of the semantics of the reflected reality to what one would like to express, consistency characterizes the structure of speech, its organization and evaluates the semantic connections of linguistic units in speech from the point of view of the laws of logic and correct thinking. These connections are recognized as logically consistent if they correspond to the connections and relationships of reality and correctly reflect the structure of thought. Consequently, we can talk about two types of logic: substantive and conceptual.

Subject logic consists in the correspondence of semantic connections and relations of units of language and speech to the connections and relationships of objects and phenomena in reality.

Conceptual consistency ¾ is an adequate reflection of the structure of thought and its development in the semantic connections of the components of speech.

Substantive and conceptual logic are interconnected and usually act in unity for a specific act of communication. Their divergence is observed in cases where the essence of phenomena and objects, their connections and relationships in reality are perceived incorrectly or are distorted either deliberately (see, for example, fiction, fairy tales, etc.) or unintentionally as a result of logical errors made in the process of thinking.

Syntactic norms

Modern language norms At the syntactic level, many variant forms are allowed: wait for vacation/vacation, haven’t read the book/books, two have come/have come etc. Although all of them are described with sufficient completeness and consistency in the reference literature, nevertheless, in speech practice a number of difficulties arise when choosing the desired syntactic structure. Deviations are common, in particular, from the norms of coordination and control, placement of words in a sentence, construction of sentences with homogeneous members, with participial and adverbial phrases; from some construction standards complex sentences. Particular difficulties are caused by the choice of the form of the predicate with a subject, the form and meaning of which are in conflict. In the Russian speech of Belarusians, in addition, in a number of cases, deviations from syntactic norms are associated with interlingual interference.

Options for coordinating the main members of the proposal. Modern norms of coordination of the main members of a sentence, as is known, often allow variant forms of gender and number of the predicate: five (most, several) students left / left; three voted/voted; the engineer spoke / spoke etc.

The choice of one form or another of the predicate depends on a number of factors that must be taken into account in each specific act of communication.

Variants of the number forms of the predicate are noted when the subject is expressed by a word or a combination of words with the meaning of quantity.

1. The subject is expressed by a collective numeral denoting a group of persons: three wrote/were writing; five left/left.

The singular predicate is usually used in an unexpanded sentence, especially if the predicate precedes the subject: Five were present and two spoke.

When combining a collective numeral with a pronoun us, you or their the predicate is used only in the singular form: There were two of us; There are four of you left; Seven of them came.

If the subject has an agreed definition for the plural form, the predicate is used only in the plural: Soon the two detained returned; The other five will come tomorrow; The three of them slept soundly.

2. The subject is expressed by a combination of a cardinal or collective numeral with a noun in the genitive case, as well as a combination of words most, many, several with a noun in the genitive case: five athletes performed / performed; two soldiers died/ died; most of the artists left/have left.

The singular form of the predicate is preferred if: a) the predicate precedes the subject, especially if the sentence is not widespread (There are several notebooks on the table; Five maples have grown); b) the subject has the meaning of approximate (About 50 people attended the meeting; More than 380 million copies of newspapers and magazines are published in the country, more than 75 million television screens light up every day); c) an abstract noun is used as part of the subject, especially with the meaning of time (A few minutes passed; my son turned five years old); d) the components of the quantitative-nominal combination are separated (The mother had five children; There were three workers); e) the subject contains words with the meaning of restriction (Only a few people remained alive; There were only ten students in the section; Only a few days have passed since then).

The plural predicate is usually used with a subject naming a quantity with the meaning of animation, if: a) the subject and predicate are separated in the sentence by other words (Most of the meeting participants, during the discussion of the issues on the agenda, supported the speaker’s point of view); b) we are talking about a known, specific subject (We were accompanied by the same two girls we met yesterday); c) with a quantitative word there is a plural definition (The first six days passed unnoticed; the remaining twenty people will arrive tomorrow); d) there is homogeneous members as part of a subject or predicate (Most of the high school students, vocational school students, and students took part in the short-distance running; Some of the guys had already rested and set to work with renewed vigor).

In some cases, the plural or singular form of the predicate performs a semantic distinguishing function. Compare: Several students completed the task quickly And Several students quickly completed the task. The plural form of the predicate indicates that the action is attributed to each person individually, that is, it means that each student completed the task independently. The singular form of the predicate indicates that the action was performed jointly by a group consisting of several students.

The choice of the form of the number of the predicate is also influenced by such factors as the activity or passivity of the action. A predicate expressed by a verb of being, presence, state or a short form of the passive participle, especially with a ¾ inanimate noun as the subject, is usually used in the singular: There are a few houses left in the village; Most of his classmates were outraged by his behavior. The singular form of the predicate in such cases expresses the passivity of the action. To express the activity of an action, a predicate ¾ verb in the plural is used.

In a compound nominal predicate, the copula agrees with the nominal part. For example, in the sentence Most of the competition participants were students bunch were is used in the plural, since the nominal part of the predicate students has a plural form.

3. With a subject expressed by a combination of words Part with an inanimate noun in the genitive case, as well as a combination of words a lot, a little, little, a lot, as much as with a noun in the genitive case, the predicate is always used in the singular: Some of the classrooms have been renovated; So many people died in prisons!

If the subject is expressed by a phrase "part + animate noun in the genitive case", the predicate can have a singular or plural form: Some of the artists performed / performed. To choose the form of the number of the predicate in in this case influenced by the factors mentioned above (see paragraph 2).

4. With a subject expressed by a compound noun with the first part half- (half an apple, half a room, half a bucket etc.) or a combination of numerals one and a half (one and a half) with a noun, the predicate is preferred in the singular form, and in the past tense ¾ in the neuter singular form: Half the group participates in the cleanup; Saved one and a half million rubles. But if the subject has a plural definition, the predicate is used in the plural: This painful week and a half of uncertainty is over; The first half hour passed quickly.

Fluctuations in the form of the number of the predicate are also observed when the subject is expressed by an open or closed series of word forms (On the table lies / are a pen, pencil, notebooks; Neither walking, nor boating, nor swimming in the sea attracted / attracted him; I was met / was met by a brother and sister); combination with the meaning of compatibility (The teacher and his students came) pronoun who, anyone, anyone, someone, someone or somebody(Even those who never had / did not have any sympathy forour social order, listened carefully to the voice of Moscow).

Modern literary norms allow variant forms of the gender of the predicate with the subject ¾ of a masculine noun, naming a woman by profession, type of activity: the secretary called/called, the technologist suggested/suggested. The predicate in such cases can be used in both the masculine and feminine gender. The feminine form of the predicate is usually used to emphasize the gender of the character, and also if the subject has a definition or application in the form female: Our secretary is sick; The operation was performed by surgeon Petrova.

Deviations from the syntactic norms of the literary language associated with Belarusian-Russian interference. The most common deviations from the norms of verbal and nominal control in the Russian speech of Belarusians. Many Russian phrases with the connection of control do not coincide with their equivalent Belarusian ones. Thus, the Russian phrase “verb + preposition” To+ noun (pronoun) in the dative case "corresponds to the Belarusian "verb + preposition yes + noun (pronoun) in the genitive case": lean against something¾ pissed off and what, take a closer look at what¾ prygledzezza yes chago, prepare for what¾ padrykhtavazza da chago, what to strive for¾ Imknuzza yes why etc. Interference is manifested in the use of non-normative constructions like came to the master, leaned against the wall.

In phrases with the meaning of ridicule, mockery, the controlled word is used in Russian in the instrumental case with the preposition above, and in Belarusian ¾ in the genitive case with a preposition h: laugh (mock, ridicule, joke, mock) someone¾ smjatstsa (zdzekvatstsa) etc.) 5 kago-chago. Belarusians make mistakes in Russian speech such as laugh at me.

The discrepancy in the control nature of Russian words and their Belarusian equivalents contributes to the appearance of errors like sorry brother(instead of brother), warehouse manager(instead of warehouse). Compare: Russians excuse someone¾ Belarusian foreman to whom, to thank whom¾ dzyakavac to whom, to forgive whom¾ give to someone, get used to someone something¾ hurry up and get used to it, the head of what¾ riddle chago.

The discrepancy between the valence of Russian and equivalent Belarusian words often leads to the replacement of prepositional phrases with non-prepositional ones (My throat hurts instead of I have a sore throat) and, conversely, to the replacement of non-prepositional constructions with prepositional ones (get sick with typhus instead of Get typhus; Rejoice at the children instead of Enjoy children; Rich in vitamins instead of Rich in vitamins; Higher behind the birch instead of Above the birch).

One of the most common mistakes in the Russian speech of Belarusians is the replacement of a preposition from pretext With in designs like come from the city(instead of from the city), come home from school(instead of from school), call from a payphone(instead of from a machine gun). The reason for such errors is that Russian prepositions from And With in constructions "verb + from or s + genitive case" corresponds to one Belarusian preposition h; compare: call from a payphone¾ pazvanіts za autamata, come running from the street ¾ jump from the streets. Interference also manifests itself in the mixing of prepositions at And in (to study at school instead of at school, available in all instead of for everyone, to be in us instead of we have).

In some cases, the result of interlingual contacts is the activation of variants that are close to the variants of the Belarusian language, and in connection with this their semantic and stylistic neutralization. For example, synonymous combinations of verbs of speech ¾ thoughts and nouns with a preposition o(about) And about (talk about spring / about spring; think about the record / about the record) in Russian they differ in stylistic coloring and scope of use: combinations with the preposition -o (about) stylistically neutral, commonly used; combinations with preposition about are characterized by a colloquial tone, but under the influence of the Belarusian language they are neutralized and activated, being used not only in colloquial speech.

Russian constructions "verb + preposition" behind+ instrumental case" (go for water, send for son) correspond to Belarusian "verb + preposition" pa + accusative" (nauctsipa vada, paslat pa son). This contributes to the penetration of dialect constructions like walk on the water.

Obviously, not without the influence of the Belarusian language, the construction “verb + preposition” by + dative" (travel through cities, sail the seas, learn from books) often replaced by its obsolete version "verb + preposition" by + prepositional" (travel through cities, sail the seas, teach from books). In constructions with a preposition by ('after') or o(about)¾ upon graduation from university, after time has passed, to yearn for it the influence of the Belarusian language sometimes manifests itself in hyperisms: After graduating from university, after time has passed, you yearn for them.

As a result of interference, the design read to yourself(‘read quietly, not out loud’) acquires an additional semantic connotation: ‘read about yourself’, go get some water¾ ‘to follow the current’, i.e. syntactic homonymy arises.

Under the influence of prepositional case constructions, which are possible in Belarusian language in the function of the linking component of a compound nominal predicate, non-normative combinations of the type appear in the speech of Belarusians (be) for an agronomist, (become) for a director.

The interference is also manifested in the fact that in quantitative-nominal combinations of the definition ¾, adjectives with masculine and neuter nouns are used more often in the nominative form than genitive case: two green maples, three tall trees, four low bushes.

Characteristics of literary language

Literary language is a system of language elements, speech means, selected from the national language and processed by wordsmiths, public figures, and outstanding scientists. These means are perceived as exemplary and commonly used. For native speakers, the literary language is the highest form of the national language. It serves various spheres of human activity: politics, science, culture, verbal art, education, legislation, official business communication, informal communication of native speakers (everyday communication), interethnic communication, print, radio, television.

Literary language is a form of historical existence of a national language, accepted by its speakers as exemplary.

Russian language.

Encyclopedia.

If we compare the varieties of the national language (vernacular, territorial and social dialects, jargons), then the literary language plays a leading role among them. It includes the best ways to designate concepts and objects, express thoughts and emotions. There is constant interaction between the literary language and non-literary varieties of the Russian language. This is most clearly revealed in the sphere of spoken language. Thus, the pronunciation features of a particular dialect can characterize the spoken speech of people who speak a literary language. In other words, educated, cultured people sometimes retain the features of a particular dialect for the rest of their lives. Colloquial speech is influenced by book styles of the literary language. In live direct communication, speakers can use terms, foreign language vocabulary, words from the official business style (functions, reactsto work, absolutely, out of principle and etc.).

Literary language has two forms - oral and written. They differ in four parameters:

Implementation form. Titles oral and written indicate that the first is sounding speech, and the second is graphically designed. This is their main difference. The oral form is original. For the emergence of written form, it was necessary to create graphic signs that would convey the elements of spoken speech. Both oral and written forms are implemented taking into account the norms characteristic of each of them: oral - spelling, written - spelling and punctuation.

Attitude to the addressee. Written speech is usually addressed to an absent person. The writer does not see his reader, he can only mentally imagine him. Written language is not affected by the reactions of those who read it. On the contrary, oral speech

presupposes the presence of an interlocutor, a listener. The speaker and the listener not only hear, but also see each other. Therefore, spoken language often depends on how it is perceived. The reaction of approval or disapproval, the listeners' remarks, their smiles and laughter - all this can affect the nature of the speech, change it depending on the reaction, or even stop. 3. Generation of form. The speaker creates, creates his speech immediately. He simultaneously works on content and form. Therefore, often those giving a lecture, taking part in a conversation on television, answering questions from a journalist, pause, thinking about what to say, mentally selecting words, constructing sentences. Such pauses are called pauses

hesitation. The writer, unlike the speaker, has the opportunity to improve the written text, return to it several times, add, shorten, change, correct.

4. The nature of perception of oral and written speech. Written speech is designed for visual perception. While reading, you always have the opportunity to re-read an incomprehensible passage several times, make extracts, clarify the meaning of individual words, and check the correct understanding of the terms in dictionaries. Oral speech is perceived by ear. To reproduce it again, special technical means are needed. Therefore, oral speech must be constructed and organized in such a way that its content is immediately understood and easily absorbed by listeners. When implementing each form of literary language, the writer or speaker selects words, combinations of words, and composes sentences to express their thoughts. Depending on the material from which speech is constructed, it acquires book or colloquial character. This also distinguishes the literary language as the highest form of the national language from its other varieties. Let's compare the following proverbs: "Desire is stronger than compulsion"And"Hunting is no longer will." The idea is the same, but framed differently. In the first case, verbal nouns in - desire (desire, compulsion), giving a touch of conversation. It is not difficult to assume that in a scientific article or diplomatic dialogue the first proverb will be used, and in a casual conversation - the second. Consequently, the sphere of communication determines the selection of linguistic material, which in turn forms and determines the type of speech.

Book speech serves the political, legislative, scientific spheres of communication (congresses, symposiums, conferences, sessions, meetings), and colloquial speech is used at semi-official meetings, meetings, unofficial or semi-official anniversaries, celebrations, friendly feasts, meetings, during confidential conversations between the boss and subordinates, in everyday, everyday, family settings.

Book speech is built according to the norms of the literary language, their violation is unacceptable; sentences must be complete and logically connected to each other. In book speech, sharp transitions from one thought, which is not brought to its logical conclusion, to another are not allowed. Among the words there are abstract, bookish words, including scientific terminology and official business vocabulary.

Colloquial speech is not so strict in observing the norms of the literary language. It allows the use of forms that are classified in dictionaries as colloquial. The text of such a speech is dominated by commonly used, colloquial vocabulary; preference is given to simple sentences, participial and adverbial phrases are avoided.

Literary language is the highest form of nationallanguage

So, the functioning of the literary language in the most important spheres of human activity, the various means for transmitting information embedded in it, the presence of oral and written forms, the distinction and contrast between book and colloquial speech - all this gives reason to consider the literary language the highest form of the national language.

The scientific linguistic literature identifies the main features of a literary language. One of the signs of a literary language is its processing. “The first who perfectly understood this was Pushkin,” wrote A. M. Gorky, “he was the first to show how to use the speech material of the people, how to process it.”

The reformist nature of A. S. Pushkin’s work is recognized by everyone. He believed that any word is acceptable if it expresses the concept accurately, figuratively, and conveys the meaning. Folk speech is especially rich in this regard. Acquaintance with the works of A. S. Pushkin shows how creative and original he is including colloquial words into poetic speech, gradually diversifying and complicating their functions. And in the future, Russian writers and poets took part in enriching the literary language. Krylov, Griboyedov, Gogol, Turgenev, Saltykov-Shchedrin, L. Tolstoy, Chekhov did especially a lot. Politicians, scientists, cultural and artistic figures, journalists, radio and television workers participate in the processing of the Russian literary language and its improvement.

“Any material - and language especially,” A. M. Gorky rightly noted, “requires a careful selection of all the best that is in it - clear, precise, colorful, sonorous, and - further loving development of this best.” This is what language processing is all about.

Another distinctive feature of literary language is Naliwhich written and oral forms, as well as two varieties - book and colloquial speech.

Thanks to the written form, the accumulative function of the language, its continuity, and tradition are realized. The existence of functional-style spheres of the literary language, that is, book and colloquial speech, allows it to be a means of expressing national culture (fiction, journalism, theater, cinema, television, radio). There is constant interaction and interpenetration between these two varieties. As a result, not only does the literary language itself become richer and more diverse, but also the possibilities for its use increase.

A sign of a literary language is considered availability of functionsnational styles, B Depending on the goals and objectives that are set and solved during communication, various linguistic means are selected and unique varieties of a single literary language, functional styles, are formed.

Term functional style emphasizes that varieties of literary language are distinguished on the basis of the function (role) that the language performs in each specific case.

Signs of a literary language:

processed;

availability of oral and written forms;

presence of functional styles;

variation of linguistic units;

normativity.

Scientific works, textbooks, reports are written scientificlem; memos, financial reports, orders, instructions are drawn up in formal business style; articles in newspapers, speeches by journalists on radio and television are mainly conducted in newspaper and journalistic style; in any informal setting, when everyday topics are discussed, impressions of the past day are shared, it is used conversational everyday style.

The multifunctionality of the literary language led to the emergence of variable units at all levels: phonetic, word-formation, lexical, phraseological, morphological, syntactic. In this regard, there is a desire to differentiate the use of variants, to endow them with shades of meaning and stylistic coloring, which leads to an enrichment of the synonymy of the Russian language.

The variability of linguistic units, the richness and diversity of lexical-phraseological and grammatical synonymy distinguishes the literary language and is its characteristic.

The most important feature of a literary language is its normativity.

Literary language is not only the language of writers, but also a sign of an intelligent and educated person. Unfortunately, people not only do not own it, but not everyone knows about its existence, including some modern writers. The works are written very in simple words, jargon and slang are used in large quantities, which is unacceptable for a literary language. For those who want to master the language of poets and writers, the features of a literary language will be described.

Definition

Literary language is the highest form of language, which is opposed to vernaculars, jargon, and dialectisms. Some experts contrast it with the colloquial form because they believe written language(for example, in the Middle Ages they only wrote in the literary language).

This form is considered a historical category, because this category is formed in the process language development. A literary language is an indicator of the level of national culture, because works are created in it and cultural people communicate in it.

There are many definitions: some are constructed from a linguistic point of view, others use delimitation with the help of native speakers of the language. Each definition is correct, the main thing is that you know how to distinguish it from other categories. Below we will give the concept of features of a literary language.

The formation of a cultural linguistic form

The basis of the literary language is considered to be a dialect, which is dominant in the political, economic and cultural center states. The Moscow dialect served as the basis for the Russian language. The Church Slavonic language had a great influence on the formation of this species. The first written translations into our language were Christian books, which later affected the development of the language. For a long time, the teaching of writing took place through the church, which undoubtedly influenced the culture's written language.

But one should not combine literary and artistic language, because in the first case it is a broad concept that includes the variety with which works are written. The features of a literary language are its strict standardization and accessibility for everyone, while some authors works of art have insufficient command of the literary form of the language in the broad sense.

How to identify writers' language

The cultural form of speech does not tolerate the excessive use of slang words, bureaucracy, speech cliches, and vernacular. There are norms that help preserve the purity of the language by providing a linguistic standard. These rules can be found in grammar reference books and dictionaries.

There are main features of a literary language:

Literary language as part of the national

Each language has its own national limits, so it reflects everything cultural heritage of its people, its history. Due to ethnic characteristics, each language is unique and original, and has characteristic folk features. National and literary languages ​​are closely interconnected, which creates limitless possibilities of the language. But it is still possible to identify the characteristics of a national literary language.

The form under consideration, along with the national one, also includes the use of non-literary styles. Every nation has its own dialect. Russian is divided into Northern Russian, Central Russian and Southern Russian. But some words end up in the literary language for various reasons. They will be called dialectisms. Their use is permissible only from a stylistic point of view, that is, it is considered possible in a certain context.

One of the types of national language is jargon - these are words used by a certain group of people. Its use is also possible in literary language; jargon was especially widely used in Russian literature in post-Soviet times. Their use is strictly regulated by literary norms:

• characteristics of the hero;
• with proof of the appropriateness of use.

Dialect is another feature of the national language, which is characteristic of people living in the same territory or united by social sign. In literature, dialect words can be used in the following cases:

Signs of the modern Russian literary language

In the traditional sense, the language has been considered modern since the time of A.S. Pushkin. Since one of the main features of a literary language is a norm, you should know on what norms the modern one is based:

• accent norms;
• orthoepic;
• lexical;
• phraseological;
• word formation;
• spelling;
• punctuation;
• grammatical;
• syntactic;
• stylistic.

A literary language is characterized by strict adherence to all norms in order to preserve the entire cultural heritage. But the modern literary language has problems related specifically to maintaining the purity of the language, namely the large use of depreciated vocabulary (foul language), a large number of borrowings, and the frequent use of jargon.

Functional-style types

As was written above, the characteristics of a literary language include its stylistic diversity.

1. Written and book speech, which is divided into official business, journalistic and scientific.
2. Artistic speech.

The colloquial form of speech is not included here, because it does not have strict regulation, that is, one of the main features of a literary language.

Russian literary language at the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st centuries.

The processes occurring in language are a natural phenomenon, because it is not a static unit. It also changes and develops with society. In the same way, in our time, new signs of a literary language have appeared. Now the media is becoming an influential sphere, which is forming new functional linguistic features. With the development of the Internet, a mixed written and spoken form of speech begins to develop.

Literary language performs a very complex and important task: to preserve accumulated knowledge, unite all cultural and national heritage and pass everything on to new generations, preserving national identity.

This publication will help you systematize previously acquired knowledge, as well as prepare for an exam or test and pass it successfully. The manual is intended for students of higher and secondary educational institutions.

• 1 CONCEPT AND SIGNS OF LITERARY LANGUAGE
• 2 MULTIFUNCTIONALITY OF THE RUSSIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE. DIFFERENCE IN THE FUNCTIONS OF LITERARY LANGUAGE AND THE LANGUAGE OF FICTION
• 6 LANGUAGE NORM, ITS ROLE IN THE FORMATION AND FUNCTIONING OF LITERARY LANGUAGE
• 7 FUNCTIONAL STYLES IN MODERN RUSSIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE
• 11 NORMATIVE, COMMUNICATIVE, ETHICAL ASPECTS OF ORAL AND WRITTEN SPEECH
• 12 OFFICIAL BUSINESS STYLE, SCOPE OF ITS OPERATION, GENRE DIVERSITY
• 17 PREPARATION OF A SPEECH: SELECTION OF A TOPIC, PURPOSE OF SPEECH, SEARCH FOR MATERIAL, STARTING, DEVELOPMENT AND COMPLETION OF SPEECH
• 18 BASIC TECHNIQUES FOR SEARCHING MATERIAL AND TYPES OF SUPPORTING MATERIALS

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by liters company.

1 CONCEPT AND SIGNS OF LITERARY LANGUAGE

Literary language is a national written language, the language of official and business documents, school teaching, written communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture expressed in verbal form (written and sometimes oral), perceived by native speakers of this language as exemplary. Literary language is the language of literature in a broad sense. The Russian literary language functions both in oral form and in written form.

Signs of a literary language:

1) the presence of writing;

2) normalization is a fairly stable way of expression that expresses historically established patterns of development of the Russian literary language. Standardization is based on the language system and is enshrined in the best examples of literary works. This method of expression is preferred by the educated part of society;

3) codification, i.e. fixed in scientific literature; this is expressed in the availability of grammatical dictionaries and other books containing rules for using the language;

4) stylistic diversity, i.e. the variety of functional styles of the literary language;

5) relative stability;

6) prevalence;

7) common use;

8) universal obligatory;

9) compliance with the use, customs and capabilities of the language system.

The protection of the literary language and its norms is one of the main tasks of speech culture. Literary language unites people linguistically. The leading role in the creation of a literary language belongs to the most advanced part of society.

Each of the languages, if it is sufficiently developed, has two main functional varieties: literary language and living spoken language. Every person masters live spoken language from early childhood. The mastery of a literary language occurs throughout human development until old age.

Literary language must be generally understandable, that is, accessible to all members of society. Literary language must be developed to such an extent as to be able to serve the main areas of human activity. In speech, it is important to observe the grammatical, lexical, spelling and accentological norms of the language. Based on this, an important task for linguists is to consider everything new in a literary language from the point of view of compliance with the general patterns of language development and the optimal conditions for its functioning.

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The given introductory fragment of the book Russian language and culture of speech. Cheat sheet (E. A. Shcherbaeva) provided by our book partner -