Normans is one of the names of the northern peoples. So residents of Central and Southern Europe in the 8th-11th centuries they called squads of fierce warriors who sailed from cold countries. Raids were regular, detachments turned into armies, and as a result the map of Europe was redrawn.

Numerous synonyms

The huge Frankish empire created by the representative of the Carolingian dynasty, Charlemagne, disappeared from the face of the Earth. England was captured. The Spaniards, whose country the robbers also reached, called them pagan monsters - madhouses, putting all the horror of them into the name. The British called them ascemans, that is, sailing on boats made of strong ash. IN Ancient Rus' they were called Varangians. They are also known as “Vikings” (later it was proven that the Normans themselves used the term “Viking” to describe their sea voyage). We can say that the Normans are conquerors, as the Frankish poet said, “brave to excess.” Thanks to the audacity, fearlessness, and agility of the warriors, their raids were always successful, but characterized by cruelty. Their fame spread far - all European rulers were afraid of them, but they also dreamed of having them in their service.

Warriors from generation to generation

The Normans were born warriors. Not only the harsh nature and living conditions on the shores northern seas made them like this. The religion and laws of the country were essentially militaristic. Only warriors who glorified themselves in battles ended up in the happy afterlife, where the Valkyries would forever please them. Even a wounded and dying soldier could not leave the battlefield and had to kill enemies until his last breath. And then Odin himself (the supreme deity) appeared for him and took him to the fairy tale heavenly country Volhall for eternal bliss. Normans are people who have no pity for their enemies or for themselves. Their laws were shockingly cruel. According to one of them, frail old people and defective children (even with minor deviations) were killed. The norms of their life have evolved over centuries.

Reasons for raids

The meager nature, which did not make it possible to grow the required amount of food, forced them to cruelly treat loved ones, determined the need for raids on nearby fertile and rich territories, which were located both in the south, and in the east and west. The conquerors did not disdain the lifeless northern territories, they actively settled them, forming their own colonies there. Rich lands were located beyond the seas, and the expanses of water became a second home for the Normans. They had excellent ships, stable and hardy. The warriors were also rowers; they were not at all afraid of the sea and swam far into the depths. Long before Columbus they discovered America, albeit North America.

Discipline and subordination

The Normans were excellent sailors, excellent at oars and sails, with and against the wind. Beautiful warriors and fearless pioneers, fear of whom reached the most remote corners of Europe, were surrounded by legends. The most talented, brave and ruthless warriors became badgers, who were considered werewolves. They were invincible. The army observed strict discipline, unconditional subordination of ordinary soldiers to their senior ranks, and had its own code of honor. They had stubbornness in achieving their goals and composure that did not allow them to deviate from the intended path. The character was “Nordic, self-possessed.” Most importantly, they had the ultimate goal - to create their own rich state, and all methods for this were good. But over time they changed.

The beginning of wide expansion

The history of the Normans (and there is documentary evidence of this) dates back to 789. Three ships landed on the shores of England, carrying Danes from Harland, subjects of King Beothric. And after the devastation of the monastery of the island of Lindisfarne, which followed 4 years later and received great publicity, several more raids were launched before the end of the century. After this there was a 40-year relative calm. But in 835, with the destruction of Sheppey, an English island off the coast, it all began. Annual devastating campaigns of the Normans to the shores of nearby European states followed. On some English islands, the Vikings, who undertook campaigns mainly in spring and summer, spent the winter.

Goals have been achieved

The Anglo-Saxons called them pagans, or northern people. The name "Normans" was given to them by the Franks. In 855-856, a huge army of pagans landed on the coast of East Anglia for good. But England was completely conquered only in 1066 by the Duke of Normandy (northern region of France) William, who is known in history as the Conqueror. That is, at first the Normans raided even Paris, founded their state on the territory of the Frankish empire that collapsed under their blows, and from there they attacked England.

The story of the Normans with their accession to the English and Sicilian throne, in general, ends. Yes, and they were already called Normans then. The raids ended because the warriors became farmers. They had enough now fertile land, and it was possible to ensure a decent life without resorting to weapons.

Born to win

The conquests of the Normans lasted for three centuries. As a result, parts of Ireland and Scotland were conquered in the 9th century. Constant attempts to conquer England led to the fact that in the 9th-10th centuries the northern, eastern and central parts of the country were occupied by the Normans. And the conquered territory was called Danelare (“Area of ​​Danish Law”).

They raided Frisia, a coastal region between present-day Denmark and the Netherlands. The Norman conquests extended beyond Spain and Portugal. In 859, a large flotilla of more than 60 ships, filled to capacity with plunder from Spain, arrived on the shores of North Africa. Since 844, raids on Spain were regular, and for a time they even managed to capture Seville.

Any territory was available to them

During all their campaigns, the Norman Vikings adapted very successfully to environment and assimilated with the local population. They entered southern Italy at the beginning of the 11th century, and by 1071 it all fell under the rule of the Normans.

The Vikings played a very important role. They actively participated in the creation. Along the Volkhov, Lovat, Dnieper and Volga rivers, the Viking Normans reached the Black Sea and approached the shores. Some of them, engaged in trade, reached Baghdad along the Volga and the Caspian Sea. It was not only the warm lands that attracted the Normans. The famous Viking founded a colony in Greenland in 985, which, despite the very harsh climate and difficult living conditions, lasted 400 years. Sagas are dedicated to the famous leader of the settlers, which indicate that one of the sons of Eric the Red visited North America around the year 1000.

Raids are not an end in themselves

For the Vikings, especially in the 10th-11th centuries, raids were not an end in themselves. In many areas they settled, forming states, regions, and colonies. Some settled in Scotland, some in Southern Italy. The Norman state was created in Sicily, France, and England. In some places, the result was achieved by direct seizure of the country and the overthrow of the legitimate monarch, as in England. The troops of the last Anglo-Saxon king, Harold Godwinson, were defeated at Hastings. The throne goes to the winner, William the Conqueror. The first Norman state in southern Italy arose in the county of Aversa. It was followed by Melfi and Solerno, Calabria, Apulia and Naples. Later, all these entities were united into the Kingdom of Sicily. As a rule, the Vikings first entered the service of the local nobility and then overthrew them.

The emergence of Normandy

It should be noted that the Normans had a managerial genius. They did not destroy the previous power structures, but took the best of what was achieved. The amazing ability of the Vikings to adapt already formed legal and cultural institutions to their own needs is noted. They respected the customs and achievements of the conquered peoples. The state of the Normans in France, called Normandy, began with the occupation of these lands in the 9th century by Norwegian and Danish Vikings. They were controlled by Hrolf the Pedestrian, so named because no horse could carry his huge body, and he was forced to move on foot. The Normans forced Charles III the Simple to recognize the lands at the mouth of the Seine as their property. Hrolf recognized himself as a vassal of Charles, married his daughter and took the Christian name Rollon. The Normans who arrived with him converted to Christianity and willingly mixed with the local population. Taking all the best from feudal France, the Normans created a good government structure power both in Normandy and in England and Sicily.

Revived popularity

The meaning of the word “Normans” is the simplest. It is translated from the Scandinavian northman literally - “northern man”. As already noted, these peoples, who lived in Scandinavia, became widely known thanks to widespread expansion in the 8th-11th centuries. The Normans combined warriors, sailors, merchants, discoverers and travelers.

Naturally, the great people had their own traditions, religion, and literature. The Norman culture is a branch of the ancient Germanic culture. Impressions of numerous campaigns were passed on from mouth to mouth and sagas were composed. Poets called skalds were especially honored. The Viking religion, embodied in myths, has brought down to the present day the names of pagan gods - the main deity Odin and 12 others - Thor, Loki, Bragi, Heimndall and others. There were also 4 goddesses - Frigg, Freya, Idun, Sif. Mythology was formed from the 5th century until the adoption of Christianity. The “Elder Edda” written in verse and the prose “Younger Edda” are the main sources. Throughout the territory where the Normans lived or their paths lay, steles carved with runic signs have survived to this day; archaeologists have found jewelry and talismans. Everything about the Normans has spawned a powerful pop culture these days - hundreds of video games, cartoons, popular novels.

Another name

People from Scandinavia had many names; in each country they were called differently - in Rus' they were given the name “Varyags”. The Normans who came to Rus' from the north were hired to serve the Russian princes, who willingly became related to them, since the blood of Rurik flowed in their veins, who founded in the 9th century. He was the founder of the princely family, which later turned into the first Russian royal dynasty. The Normans in Russia have always been personified as powerful, invincible warriors. Therefore, the warship was given the name “Varyag”, and many people still know the words of the song, glorifying courage and loyalty to the Fatherland.

VIKINGS (Normans), sea robbers, immigrants from Scandinavia, who committed in the 9th–11th centuries. hikes up to 8000 km long, maybe even longer distances. These daring and fearless people in the east reached the borders Persia, and in the west - the New World.

The word "Viking" comes from the Old Norse "vikingr". There are a number of hypotheses regarding its origin, the most convincing of which traces it to “vik” - fiord, bay. The word "Viking" (lit. "man from the fiord") was used to refer to robbers who operated in coastal waters, hiding in secluded bays and bays. They were known in Scandinavia long before they became infamous in Europe. The French called the Vikings Normans or various variations of this word (Norsmanns, Northmanns - literally “people from the north”); The British indiscriminately called all Scandinavians Danes, and the Slavs, Greeks, Khazars, and Arabs called the Swedish Vikings Rus or Varangians.

Wherever the Vikings went - to the British Isles, France, Spain, Italy or North Africa, - they mercilessly robbed and seized other people's lands. In some cases, they settled in conquered countries and became their rulers. Danish Vikings conquered England for some time and settled in Scotland and Ireland. Together they conquered a part of France known as Normandy. The Norwegian Vikings and their descendants created colonies on the North Atlantic islands of Iceland and Greenland and founded a settlement on the coast of Newfoundland in North America, which, however, did not last long. Swedish Vikings began to rule in the eastern Baltic. They spread widely throughout Rus' and, going down the rivers to the Black and Caspian Seas, even threatened Constantinople and some regions of Persia. The Vikings were the last Germanic barbarian conquerors and the first European pioneer seafarers.

There are different interpretations of the reasons for the violent outbreak of Viking activity in the 9th century. There is evidence that Scandinavia was overpopulated and many Scandinavians went abroad to seek their fortune. The rich but undefended cities and monasteries of their southern and western neighbors were easy prey. It was unlikely that there would be any resistance from the scattered kingdoms of the British Isles or the weakened empire of Charlemagne, consumed by dynastic strife. During the Viking Age, national monarchies gradually consolidated in Norway, Sweden and Denmark. Ambitious leaders and powerful clans fought for power. Defeated the leaders and their followers, as well as the younger sons of the victorious leaders, unabashedly embraced unfettered plunder as a way of life. Energetic young men from influential families usually gained prestige through participation in one or more campaigns. Many Scandinavians engaged in robbery in the summer and then turned into ordinary landowners. However, the Vikings were not only attracted by the lure of prey. The prospect of establishing trade opened the way to wealth and power. In particular, immigrants from Sweden controlled trade routes in Rus'.

The English term "Viking" comes from the Old Norse word vkingr, which could have several meanings. The most acceptable, apparently, origin is from the word vk - bay, or bay. Therefore, the word vkingr translates as “man from the bay.” The term was used to describe the marauders who took refuge in coastal waters long before the Vikings became notorious in the outside world. However, not all Scandinavians were sea ​​robbers, and the terms "Viking" and "Scandinavian" cannot be considered synonymous. The French usually called the Vikings Normans, and the British indiscriminately classified all Scandinavians as Danes. The Slavs, Khazars, Arabs and Greeks who communicated with the Swedish Vikings called them Rus or Varangians.

LIFESTYLE

Abroad, the Vikings acted as robbers, conquerors and traders, but at home they mainly farmed the land, hunted, fished and raised livestock. The independent peasant, working alone or with his relatives, formed the basis of Scandinavian society. No matter how small his allotment, he remained free and was not tied as a serf to land that belonged to another person. Family ties were strongly developed in all layers of Scandinavian society, and in important matters its members usually acted together with relatives. The clans jealously guarded the good names of their fellow tribesmen, and violating the honor of any of them often led to cruel civil strife.

Women played an important role in the family. They could own property and independently decide on marriage and divorce from an unsuitable spouse. However, outside the family hearth, women's participation in public life remained insignificant.

Food. In Viking times, most people ate two meals a day. The main products were meat, fish and cereal grains. Meat and fish were usually boiled, less often fried. For storage, these products were dried and salted. The cereals used were rye, oats, barley and several types of wheat. Usually porridge was made from their grains, but sometimes bread was baked. Vegetables and fruits were rarely eaten. Drinks consumed were milk, beer, fermented honey drink, and in the upper classes of society, imported wine.

Cloth. Peasant clothing consisted of a long woolen shirt, short baggy pants, stockings and a rectangular cape. Vikings from the upper classes wore long pants, socks and capes in bright colors. Woolen mittens and hats, as well as fur hats and even felt hats, were in use. Women from high society usually wore long clothes consisting of a bodice and a skirt. Thin chains hung from the buckles on the clothes, to which scissors and a case for needles, a knife, keys and other small items were attached. Married women wore their hair in a bun and wore conical white linen caps. Unmarried girls had their hair tied up with a ribbon.

Housing. Peasant dwellings were usually simple one-room houses, built either from tightly fitted vertical beams, or more often from wickerwork coated with clay. Wealthy people usually lived in a large rectangular house, which housed numerous relatives. In heavily forested Scandinavia, such houses were built from wood, often in combination with clay, and in Iceland and Greenland, where wood was scarce, local stone was widely used. There they built walls 90 cm thick or more. Roofs were usually covered with peat. The central living room of the house was low and dark, with a long fireplace in the middle. There they cooked, ate and slept. Sometimes inside the house, pillars were installed in a row along the walls to support the roof, and the side rooms fenced off in this way were used as bedrooms.

Literature and art. The Vikings valued skill in battle, but they also revered literature, history and art.

Viking literature existed in oral form, and only some time after the end of the Viking Age did the first written works. The runic alphabet was then used only for inscriptions on tombstones, for magic spells and short messages. But Iceland has preserved rich folklore. It was written down at the end of the Viking Age using the Latin alphabet by scribes who wanted to immortalize the exploits of their ancestors.

Among the treasures of Icelandic literature are the long prose narratives known as sagas. They are divided into three main types. In the most important, so-called family sagas are described real characters Viking era. Several dozen family sagas have survived, five of them are comparable in volume to large novels. The other two types are historical sagas, telling of the Norse kings and the settlement of Iceland, and late Viking Age fictional adventure sagas, reflecting the influence Byzantine Empire and India. Another major prose work to emerge from Iceland is the Prose Edda, a collection of myths written down by Snorri Sturluson, an Icelandic historian and politician 13th century

Poetry was held in high esteem by the Vikings. Icelandic hero and adventurer Egil Skallagrimsson was as proud of his title as a poet as he was of his achievements in battle. Improvisational poets (skalds) sang the virtues of jarls (leaders) and princes in complex poetic stanzas. Much simpler than the poetry of the skalds were songs about the gods and heroes of the past, preserved in the collection known as the Elder Edda.

Viking art was primarily decorative in nature. The predominant motifs - whimsical animals and energetic abstract compositions of interlacing ribbons - were used in wood carvings, fine gold and silver work, and decorations on rune stones and monuments that were set up to commemorate important events.

Religion. In the beginning, the Vikings worshiped pagan gods and goddesses. The most important of them were Thor, Din, Frey and the goddess Freya; Njord, Ull, Balder and several other household gods were of lesser importance. The gods were worshiped in temples or in sacred forests, groves and springs. The Vikings also believed in many supernatural creatures: trolls, elves, giants, mermen and magical inhabitants of forests, hills and rivers.

Blood sacrifices were often performed. Sacrificial animals were usually eaten by the priest and his entourage at feasts held in temples. There were also human sacrifices, even ritual killings of kings to ensure the well-being of the country. In addition to priests and priestesses, there were sorcerers who practiced black magic.

People of the Viking Age placed great importance on luck as a type of spiritual power inherent in any person, but especially in leaders and kings. Nevertheless, that era was characterized by a pessimistic and fatalistic attitude. Fate was presented as an independent factor above gods and people. According to some poets and philosophers, people and gods were doomed to go through a powerful struggle and cataclysm known as Ragnark (Il. - “end of the world”).

Christianity slowly spread northward and provided an attractive alternative to paganism. In Denmark and Norway, Christianity was established in the 10th century, Icelandic leaders adopted the new religion in 1000, and Sweden in the 11th century, but in the north of this country pagan beliefs persisted until the beginning of the 12th century.

MILITARY ART

Viking campaigns. Detailed information about the Viking campaigns is known mainly from written reports of the victims, who did not spare colors to describe the devastation that the Scandinavians brought with them. The first Viking campaigns were carried out using the “hit and run” principle. Without warning, they appeared from the sea on light, fast ships and attacked poorly guarded objects known for their wealth. The Vikings cut down the few defenders with swords, and enslaved the rest of the inhabitants, seized valuables, and set everything else on fire. Gradually they began to use horses in their campaigns.

Weapon. The weapons of the Vikings were bows and arrows, as well as a variety of swords, spears and battle axes. Swords and spear and arrowheads were usually made of iron or steel. Yew or elm wood was preferred for bows, and braided hair was usually used as a bowstring.

Viking shields had a round or oval shape. Usually the shields were made from light pieces of linden wood, trimmed along the edges and across with iron strips. There was a pointed plaque in the center of the shield. For protection, warriors also wore metal or leather helmets, often with horns, and warriors from the nobility often wore chain mail.

Viking ships. The highest technical achievement of the Vikings were their warships. These boats, kept in exemplary order, were often described with great love in Viking poetry and were a source of pride for them. The narrow frame of such a vessel was very convenient for approaching the shore and quickly passing along rivers and lakes. Lighter ships were especially suitable for surprise attacks; they could be dragged from one river to another to bypass rapids, waterfalls, dams and fortifications. The disadvantage of these ships was that they were not sufficiently adapted for long voyages on the open sea, which was compensated for by the navigational art of the Vikings.

Viking boats differed in the number of pairs of rowing oars, large ships - in the number of rowing benches. 13 pairs of oars determined the minimum size of a combat vessel. The very first ships were designed for 40–80 people each, and a large keel ship of the 11th century. could accommodate several hundred people. Such large combat units exceeded 46 m in length.

Ships were often built from planks laid in overlapping rows and held together by curved frames. Above the waterline, most of the warships were brightly painted. Carved dragon heads, sometimes gilded, adorned the bows of ships. The same decoration could be on the stern, and in some cases there was a writhing tail of a dragon. When sailing in the waters of Scandinavia, these decorations were usually removed so as not to frighten the good spirits. Often, when approaching a port, shields were hung in a row on the sides of ships, but this was not allowed on the open sea.

Viking ships moved with the help of sails and oars. A simple square-shaped sail made from rough canvas, it was often painted with stripes and checks. The mast could be shortened and even removed altogether. With the help of skillful devices, the captain could steer the ship against the wind. The ships were controlled by a blade-shaped rudder mounted on the stern on the starboard side.

Several surviving Viking ships are on display in museums in Scandinavian countries. One of the most famous, discovered in 1880 in Gokstad (Norway), dates back to approximately 900 AD. It reaches a length of 23.3 m and a width of 5.3 m. The ship had a mast and 32 oars, and it had 32 shields. In some places, elegant carved decorations have been preserved. The navigational capabilities of such a vessel were demonstrated in 1893, when a replica of it sailed from Norway to Newfoundland in four weeks. This copy is now in Lincoln Park in Chicago.

STORY

Vikings in Western Europe. Information about the first significant Viking raid dates back to 793 AD, when the monastery at Lindisfarne on Holy Island off the east coast of Scotland was sacked and burned. Nine years later the monastery at Iona in the Hebrides was devastated. These were pirate raids by the Norwegian Vikings.

Soon the Vikings moved to capture large territories. At the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th century. they took possession of Shetland, Orkney and the Hebrides and settled in the far north of Scotland. In the 11th century for unknown reasons they left these lands. The Shetland Islands remained in Norwegian hands until the 16th century.

Norwegian Viking raids on Ireland began in the 9th century. In 830 they established a wintering settlement in Ireland and by 840 they had taken control of large areas of that country. The Viking positions were mainly strong in the south and east. This situation continued until 1170, when the British invaded Ireland and drove out the Vikings.

It was mainly Danish Vikings who entered England. In 835 they made a trip to the mouth of the Thames, in 851 they settled on the islands of Sheppey and Thanet in the Thames estuary, and in 865 they began the conquest of East Anglia. King Alfred the Great of Wessex eventually stopped their advance, but was forced to cede lands north of a line running from London to the north-eastern edge of Wales. This territory, called Danelag (Danish Law Area), was gradually reconquered by the English in the next century, but repeated Viking raids in the early 11th century. led to the restoration of the power of their king Cnut and his sons, this time over all of England. Ultimately, in 1042, as a result of a dynastic marriage, the throne passed to the English. However, even after this, Danish raids continued until the end of the century.

Norman raids on the coastal regions of the Frankish state began at the end of the 8th century. Gradually the Scandinavians gained a foothold at the mouth of the Seine and other rivers northern France. In 911, the French king Charles III the Simple concluded a forced peace with the leader of the Normans, Rollon, and granted him Rouen and the surrounding lands, to which new territories were added a few years later. The Duchy of Rollon attracted a lot of immigrants from Scandinavia and soon received the name Normandy. The Normans adopted the language, religion and customs of the Franks.

In 1066, Duke William of Normandy, known in history as William the Conqueror, the illegitimate son of Robert I, a descendant of Rollo and the fifth Duke of Normandy, invaded England, defeated King Harold (and killed him) at the Battle of Hastings and took the English throne. The Normans undertook campaigns of conquest in Wales and Ireland, many of them settled in Scotland.

At the beginning of the 11th century. The Normans penetrated into southern Italy, where they took part in military operations against the Arabs in Salerno as mercenary soldiers. Then new settlers began to arrive here from Scandinavia and established themselves in small towns, taking them by force from their former employers and their neighbors. The most famous among Norman adventurers were the sons of Count Tancred of Hauteville, who captured Apulia in 1042. In 1053 they defeated the army of Pope Leo IX, forcing him to make peace with them and give Apulia and Calabria as a fief. By 1071 all of southern Italy fell under Norman rule. One of Tancred's sons, Duke Robert, nicknamed Guiscard ("The Cunning Man"), supported the pope in the fight against Emperor Henry IV. Robert's brother Roger I started a war with the Arabs in Sicily. In 1061 he took Messina, but only 13 years later the island came under the rule of the Normans. Roger II united the Norman possessions in southern Italy and Sicily under his rule, and in 1130 Pope Anacletus II declared him king of Sicily, Calabria and Capua.

In Italy, as elsewhere, the Normans demonstrated their amazing ability to adapt and assimilate in a foreign cultural environment. The Normans played an important role in crusades, in the history of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and other states formed by the crusaders in the East.

Vikings in Iceland and Greenland. Iceland was discovered by Irish monks, and then at the end of the 9th century. inhabited by Norwegian Vikings. The first settlers were leaders with their entourage who fled from Norway from the despotism of King Harold, nicknamed Fairhair. For several centuries, Iceland remained independent, ruled by powerful leaders called godars. They met annually in the summer at meetings of the Althing, which was the prototype of the first parliament. However, the Althing could not resolve the feuds between the leaders, and in 1262 Iceland submitted to the Norwegian king. It regained its independence only in 1944.

In 986, the Icelander Erik the Red carried away several hundred colonists to the southwestern coast of Greenland, which he had discovered several years earlier. They settled in the area of ​​Västerbygden (“western settlement”) at the edge of the ice cap on the shores of the Ameralikfjord. Even for the hardy Icelanders, the harsh conditions of southern Greenland proved difficult. Hunting, fishing and whaling, they lived in the area for approx. 400 years. However, around 1350 the settlements were completely abandoned. Historians have yet to figure out why the colonists, who had accumulated considerable experience of life in the North, suddenly left these places. Here, climate cooling, a chronic shortage of grain, and the almost complete isolation of Greenland from Scandinavia after the plague epidemic in the mid-14th century could probably have played a major role.

Vikings in North America. One of the most controversial issues in Scandinavian archeology and philology is related to the study of the attempts of the Greenlanders to establish a colony in North America. Two Icelandic family sagas, Erik the Red's Saga and the Greenlanders' Saga, detail visits to the American coast c. 1000. According to these sources, North America was discovered by Bjadni Herjolfsson, the son of a Greenlandic pioneer, but the main characters of the sagas are Leif Eriksson, son of Erik the Red, and Thorfinn Thordarson, nicknamed Karlsabni. Leif Ericsson's base was apparently located in the area of ​​L'Anse aux Meadows, located in the far north of the coast of Newfoundland. Leif, along with his associates, carefully explored an area of ​​a more temperate climate located much further south, which he called Vinland. Karlsabney assembled a detachment to create a colony in Vinland in 1004 or 1005 (the location of this colony could not be determined). The newcomers met resistance from the local residents and were forced to return to Greenland three years later.

Leif Eriksson's brothers Thorstein and Torvald also took part in the exploration of the New World. It is known that Torvald was killed by the Aborigines. Greenlanders traveled to America for timber even after the end of the Viking Age.

End of the Viking Age. The vigorous activity of the Vikings ended at the end of the 11th century. A number of factors contributed to the cessation of expeditions and discoveries that had lasted more than 300 years. In Scandinavia itself, monarchies were firmly entrenched, and orderly orders were established among the nobility. feudal relations, similar to those that existed in the rest of Europe, the opportunities for uncontrolled raids diminished, and the incentives for aggressive activity abroad waned. Political and social stabilization in countries outside Scandinavia allowed them to resist Viking raids. The Vikings, who had already settled in France, Russia, Italy and the British Isles, were gradually assimilated by the local population.

Materials from the encyclopedia “The World Around Us” were used.

Literature:

Gurevich A. Ya. Viking Campaigns. M., 1966.

Ingstad H. In the footsteps of Leiv the Happy. L., 1969

Icelandic sagas. M., 1973

Firks I. Viking ships. L., 1982

The love of wandering, common to all Germanic peoples, was strong in Scandinavians. They have long sailed to distant lands, this was called the Viking voyages. During the migration of peoples, Scandinavian warriors - Vikings and Normans - probably took part in the campaigns of German tribes against the Roman regions. According to Scandinavian customs, only the eldest son received the inheritance after his father; in a poor country there was little means to buy food for a person who did not have land; therefore, the younger sons had to feed on sea robbery. Habit strengthened the innate tendency to wander; the thirst for glory and the attraction of northern people to the treasures of the rich south excited the Scandinavians to embark on dangerous expeditions. The one who returned with the booty found honor in his homeland, the singers composed songs in his honor. When, at the end of the 9th century, vast states began to form in Scandinavia, whose kings constrained the former freedom of small communities, the number of those who embarked on long voyages increased: proud or violent people who did not want to obey the king who conquered their community, left their homeland, sailed to seek their happiness in strangers lands. Military squads gathered for a wide variety of enterprises; The more courageous and dangerous the struggle, the more it aroused the imagination, the higher the courage of the wild warriors of the north rose. Sometimes they went into long voyage for robbery or conquest the kings themselves, wanting to glorify their name. Only those expeditions that were undertaken under the command of princes called sea kings were considered honorable. The leader had to surpass all his companions in strength and ability to endure hardships. “Only he is worthy of being called a sea king,” says an old legend, “who has never slept under a smoke-stained ceiling, or who has never drunk from his own horn by the house fire.”

Viking campaigns. Map

Historian Steenstrup distinguishes two periods of Viking expeditions. In the first, the Normans sail overseas in small detachments, attack only the coasts and islands, leave when winter sets in, and return in the spring. In the second period, they gather in large troops, go far from the coast, stay for the winter in the country they plunder, take possession of it, build fortifications there, and settle in them. This period begins in some of the lands visited by the Vikings earlier, in others later: in Ireland around 835, at the mouth of the Loire - around the same time, in England and along the lower Seine - in 851, in Friesland, Danish leaders received land as fief already before.

Normans. People from the north. BBC film

Viking voyages have become larger since the beginning of the 9th century. The expeditions that happened before disappeared from the memories of the Scandinavians, as unimportant compared to the voyages of large troops that began from that time and for more than two centuries terrified all European lands with their destructive power. Since the beginning of the 9th century, almost every year the Normans appear on the British Isles and along all the shores of the Frankish state: they appear in Spain, penetrate the Mediterranean Sea, and make landings on the shores of Italy and Africa. Greece; even the Scandinavian coasts suffered from them. They rose up the Thames, along the Rhine, along all the great French rivers, penetrated into the depths of the countries and unconditionally dominated the sea; as one of the poets of that time put it, they lived on the sea and fed on the sea. IN different countries they were called by different names: in England, Danes, in Ireland, Ostmanns (Eastern people), in the state of the Franks, Normans (Northern people). Their small, long, narrow ships were adapted to sail both with oars and under sails, but did not have any devices for convenience, not even a deck for protection from bad weather or heat. Norman did not need amenities. The Viking loved his ship, “a seahorse cutting through the waves with its chest,” as it is called in Scandinavian songs.

“They appeared unexpectedly,” says the historian Wenck about the Norman attacks on France, “and especially loved the mouths of large rivers; there they built fortifications for storage of spoils and for defense; From their fortification at the mouth of the river, they sailed up it, then walked along the dry route, plundered and mercilessly burned everything. They loved to make their way secretly through the forests to a monastery or city, the defenders of which had left it to look for them in another place, deceived by their cunning; they were inexhaustible in cunning; with the same speed with which they went to plunder, they returned to their ships. To protect the shores from them, a good fleet would be needed, but the Franks did not have one, although they often tried to acquire one, starting from the time of Charlemagne. The Normans also fought bravely on land. They began to appear in such numbers that they fought formal battles and went far into the interior of the country. Tempered in enduring hardships, bad weather, difficulties, accustomed by danger to dexterity and resourcefulness, they quickly adapted to all circumstances. Having captured horses, they became skilled riders; approaching cities, they soon learned to conduct siege work.” Their ships were small and sat shallow in the water, so they could even navigate small rivers. They gathered in flotillas of three or four hundred ships and went up the river to the ford or far to the sources; having reached shallow water, they climbed out of the ships and dragged them on their shoulders further to a deep place. Small islands at the mouths of large rivers were their favorite stops; having fortified themselves there, they lay in wait for merchant ships and carried away the spoils to the camp; they stayed there for the winter. They had such sites at the mouths of the Thames, Scheldt, Seine, and Loire. “When two Viking ships met,” Büdinger continues, “they fought among themselves, the defeated surrendered with all the spoils to the winners. And when they came across a merchant ship, they had the custom of offering the merchants a choice: either go ashore, leaving them the ship with goods, or be killed. But at times, especially probably in winter, some Vikings themselves became merchants, and it was often difficult to say what the main purpose of a Viking ship was, robbery or trade.”

So the Normans sailed the sea, along rivers, walked on land, fearless and merciless robbers, devastators, murderers. “The Vikings spare no one; one often puts ten enemies to flight, sometimes more, poverty gives them courage, vagrancy takes away the opportunity to overtake them, despair makes them invincible,” says one of the chroniclers of that time, and the trembling people sang a prayer in the churches: “From the rage of the Normans, Lord, have mercy on us." At first they only plundered, without thinking of making conquests; the sea was their summer home, robbery was their summer work, booty was their harvest. Having worked so hard in the summer, they returned home for the winter with the looted treasures. But soon they began to found fortified settlements on the banks of the river mouth or on its island, hid their loot there and spent the winter. Then their raids became wider and more systematic. Having learned from experience the weakness of large states, they began to unite into numerous armies and turned from robbers into conquerors, founders of states. At this time, tales about the heroes of Norman piracy began to appear. The most famous of them was Ragnar Lothbrok.

The medieval Viking era dates back to the period of the 8th-11th centuries, when the European seas were plied by brave robbers originally from Scandinavia. Their raids struck terror into the civilized inhabitants of the Old World. The Vikings were not only robbers, but also traders and explorers. They were pagans by religion.

The emergence of the Vikings

In the 8th century, residents of the territory of modern Norway, Sweden and Denmark began to build the fastest ships at that time and go on long journeys on them. They were pushed into these adventures by the harsh nature of their native lands. Agriculture in Scandinavia it was poorly developed due to the cold climate. The modest harvest did not allow local residents to sufficiently feed their families. Thanks to the robberies, the Vikings became noticeably richer, which gave them the opportunity not only to buy food, but also to trade with their neighbors

The first attack of sailors on neighboring countries happened in 789. Then the robbers attacked Dorset in southwest England, killed the than and robbed the city. Thus began the Viking Age. Another important reason for the emergence of mass piracy was the disintegration of the previous system based on community and clan. The nobility, having strengthened their influence, began to create the first prototypes of states on For such jarls, robberies became a source of wealth and influence among their compatriots.

Skilled Sailors

The key reason for the conquests and geographical discoveries The Vikings became their ships, which were much better than any other European ones. Scandinavian warships were called drakkars. Sailors often used them as own house. Such ships were mobile. They could be dragged to the shore relatively easily. At first the ships were oared, but later they acquired sails.

Drakkars were distinguished by their elegant shape, speed, reliability and lightness. They were designed specifically for shallow rivers. By entering them, the Vikings could go deep into the ravaged country. Such voyages came as a complete surprise to the Europeans. As a rule, longships were built from ash wood. They are an important symbol that the early medieval history. The Viking Age was not only a period of conquest, but also a period of trade development. For this purpose, the Scandinavians used special merchant ships - knorrs. They were wider and deeper than longships. Much more goods could be loaded onto such ships.

The Viking Age in Northern Europe was marked by the development of navigation. The Scandinavians did not have any special instruments (for example, a compass), but they made good use of the clues of nature. These sailors knew the habits of birds thoroughly and took them with them on voyages to determine whether there was land nearby (if there was none, the birds returned to the ship). The researchers also navigated by the sun, stars and moon.

Raids on Britain

The first Scandinavian raids on England were fleeting. They plundered defenseless monasteries and promptly returned to the sea. However, gradually the Vikings began to lay claim to the lands of the Anglo-Saxons. There was no single kingdom in Britain at that time. The island was divided among several rulers. In 865, the legendary Ragnar Lothbrok set out for Northumbria, but his ships ran aground and were destroyed. The uninvited guests were surrounded and taken prisoner. King Aella II of Northumbria executed Ragnar by ordering him to be thrown into a pit full of poisonous snakes.

Lodbrok's death did not go unpunished. Two years later, the Great Pagan Army landed on the shores of England. This army was led by numerous sons of Ragnar. The Vikings conquered East Anglia, Northumbria and Mercia. The rulers of these kingdoms were executed. The last stronghold of the Anglo-Saxons was South Wessex. Its king, Alfred the Great, realizing that his forces were not enough to fight the invaders, concluded a peace treaty with them, and then, in 886, completely recognized their possessions in Britain.

Conquest of England

It took Alfred and his son Edward the Elder four decades to clear their homeland of foreigners. Mercia and East Anglia were liberated by 924. In remote northern Northumbria, Viking rule continued for another thirty years.

After some lull, the Scandinavians again began to appear frequently off the British coast. The next wave of raids began in 980, and in 1013 Sven Forkbeard completely captured the country and became its king. His son Canute the Great ruled three monarchies at once for three decades: England, Denmark and Norway. After his death, the former dynasty from Wessex regained power, and foreigners left Britain.

In the 11th century, the Scandinavians made several more attempts to conquer the island, but they all failed. The Viking Age, in short, left a noticeable imprint on the culture and state structure Anglo-Saxon Britain. On the territory that the Danes owned for some time, the Danelaw was established - a system of law adopted from the Scandinavians. This region was isolated from other English provinces throughout the Middle Ages.

Normans and Franks

The Viking Age is the period of the Norman attacks. It was under this name that the Scandinavians were remembered by their Catholic contemporaries. If the Vikings sailed to the west mainly to plunder England, then in the south the goal of their campaigns was the Frankish Empire. It was created in 800 by Charlemagne. While under him and under his son Louis the Pious, a single strong state was maintained, the country was reliably protected from the pagans.

However, when the empire split into three kingdoms, and they, in turn, began to suffer from the costs of the feudal system, dizzying opportunities opened up for the Vikings. Some Scandinavians plundered the coast every year, while others were hired to serve the Catholic rulers in order to protect Christians for a generous salary. During one of their raids, the Vikings even captured Paris.

In 911, the king of the Franks, Charles the Simple, gave the region to the Vikings. This region became known as Normandy. Its rulers were baptized. This tactic proved effective. More and more Vikings gradually switched to a sedentary lifestyle. But some brave souls continued their campaigns. So, in 1130, the Normans conquered southern Italy and created the Kingdom of Sicily.

Scandinavian discovery of America

Moving further west, the Vikings discovered Ireland. They frequently raided this island and left a significant imprint on the local Celtic culture. For more than two centuries, the Scandinavians ruled Dublin. Around 860, the Vikings discovered Iceland ("Iceland"). They became the first inhabitants of this deserted island. Iceland proved to be a popular location for colonization. Residents of Norway sought there, fleeing the country due to frequent civil wars.

In 900, a Viking ship accidentally lost its way and stumbled upon Greenland. The first colonies appeared there at the end of the 10th century. This discovery inspired other Vikings to continue searching for a route to the west. They rightly hoped that there were new lands far beyond the sea. The navigator reached the shores around the year 1000 North America and landed on the Labrador Peninsula. He called this region Vinland. Thus, the Viking Age was marked by the discovery of America five centuries before the expedition of Christopher Columbus.

Rumors about this country were fragmentary and did not leave Scandinavia. In Europe they never learned about the western continent. Viking settlements in Vinland lasted for several decades. Three attempts were made to colonize this land, but they all failed. Indians attacked strangers. Maintaining contact with the colonies was extremely difficult due to the enormous distances. Eventually the Scandinavians left America. Much later, archaeologists found traces of their settlement in Canadian Newfoundland.

Vikings and Rus'

In the second half of the 8th century, Viking detachments began to attack lands inhabited by numerous Finno-Ugric peoples. This is evidenced by archaeological finds discovered in the Russian Staraya Ladoga. If in Europe the Vikings were called Normans, then the Slavs called them Varangians. The Scandinavians controlled several trading ports on the coast Baltic Sea in Prussia. Here began the profitable amber route, along which amber was transported to the Mediterranean.

How did the Viking Age affect Rus'? In short, thanks to newcomers from Scandinavia, East Slavic statehood was born. According to the official version, the residents of Novgorod, who were often in contact with the Vikings, turned to them for help during internal strife. So the Varangian Rurik was invited to reign. From him came a dynasty, which in the near future united Rus' and began to rule in Kyiv.

Life of the inhabitants of Scandinavia

In their homeland, the Vikings lived in large peasant dwellings. Under the roof of one such building there fit a family that included three generations at once. Children, parents, and grandparents lived together. This custom was an echo of houses being built from wood and clay. The roofs were turf. In the central large room there was a common fireplace, behind which they not only ate, but also slept.

Even when the Viking Age began, their cities in Scandinavia remained very small, inferior in size even to the settlements of the Slavs. People concentrated mainly around craft and trade centers. Cities were built deep in the fjords. This was done in order to obtain a convenient harbor and, in the event of an attack by an enemy fleet, to know in advance about its approach.

Scandinavian peasants dressed in woolen shirts and short, baggy pants. The Viking Age costume was quite ascetic due to the shortage of raw materials in Scandinavia. Wealthy members of the upper classes could wear colorful clothing that made them stand out from the crowd, showing wealth and status. A woman's costume of the Viking Age necessarily included accessories - metal jewelry, a brooch, pendants and belt buckles. If a girl was married, she put her hair in a bun; unmarried girls tied their hair up with a ribbon.

Viking armor and weapons

In modern popular culture The image of a Viking with a horned helmet on his head is common. In fact, such headdresses were rare and were no longer used for combat, but for rituals. Viking Age clothing included light armor required for all men.

The weapons were much more varied. The northerners often used a spear about one and a half meters long, which could be used to chop and stab the enemy. But the sword remained the most common. These weapons were very light compared to other types that appeared in the subsequent Middle Ages. The Viking Age sword was not necessarily made in Scandinavia itself. Warriors often acquired Frankish weapons, as they were different best quality. The Vikings also had long knives - the Saxons.

The inhabitants of Scandinavia made bows from ash or yew. Braided hair was often used as a bowstring. Axes were common melee weapons. The Vikings preferred a wide, symmetrically diverging blade.

Last Normans

In the first half of the 11th century, the end of the Viking Age came. It was due to several factors. Firstly, in Scandinavia the old clan system completely disintegrated. It was replaced by classic medieval feudalism with overlords and vassals. Half of the inhabitants of Scandinavia have remained in the past and settled in their homeland.

The end of the Viking Age also came due to the spread of Christianity among the northerners. The new faith, unlike the pagan one, opposed bloody campaigns in foreign lands. Gradually, many rituals of sacrifices, etc. were forgotten. The first to be baptized were the nobility, who, with the help of the new faith, were legitimized in the eyes of the rest of the civilized European community. Following the rulers and aristocracy, ordinary residents did the same.

In the changed conditions, the Vikings, who wanted to connect their lives with military affairs, became mercenaries and served with foreign sovereigns. For example, at Byzantine emperors had its own Varangian guard. Residents of the north were valued for their physical strength, unpretentiousness in everyday life and many fighting skills. The last Viking in power in the classical sense of the word was King Harald III of Norway. He traveled to England and attempted to conquer it, but was killed at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066. Then came the end of the Viking Age. William the Conqueror from Normandy (himself also a descendant of Scandinavian sailors) nevertheless conquered England in the same year.

The Normans are North Germanic peoples, the ancestors of the inhabitants of the Scandinavian states, who entered history as the last of the Germans - at the very beginning of the Middle Ages. They did not take an active part in the raids of their fellow tribesmen on the Roman Empire, but, as is known, they preserved - in the northern version - many heroic tales and songs lost by those.

Some of these northern Germans advanced from the far north to the west of the Scandinavian Peninsula - they were called Normans; in the east of the peninsula, the Swedes settled west of Lake Mälaren and south of the coastal plains, and around 1164 united around a common religious center and royal court in Uppsala. Northern peoples They waged their wars mainly in the eastern regions, on the coast of the Gulf of Finland, where they also advanced. In the fight against the Finnish, Latvian and Slavic tribes that lived there, a strong eastern state. With the conquest of southern Sweden, the Baltic Sea islands and Jutland, the Normans achieved exclusive dominance over the territory of the three modern northern states.

The old song talks about a free man with a combed beard, an open forehead, in tight-fitting clothes, who tames bulls, walks behind the plow, builds houses; about the mistress of the house in simple clothes, a cap, a scarf on her shoulders, with jewelry on her neck - she spins thin yarn; finally, about the upper class - the jarls, who practice throwing spears, horse riding, and learn to swim across the Sound.

Conquest of England

Viking attack on England

According to legend, the Scandinavian Vikings attacked England in revenge for the death of Ragnar Lothbrok, who was thrown into a pit of snakes by a Northumbrian rabbit. In fact, the pagan Scandinavians were prompted to take decisive action by the overpopulation of their own country. grown up military power and the increasing wealth acquired through trade with the northern and southern countries, gave the Scandinavians the opportunity to push their more civilized neighbors to the south. Easily combining the roles of merchant and warrior, many Scandinavians became Vikings. In 865, East Anglia was temporarily occupied by a huge army. That same year the Vikings defeated the Northumbrian army, and in 867 they returned south to defend Nottingham against the combined forces of Merke and Wessex.

Disasters came to the land of the English and Anglo-Saxon kingdoms that lasted for decades. Christian chroniclers claimed that the Vikings had a huge battle fleet and an equally huge army consisting of thousands of fierce warriors. In fact, no more than 100 people took part in the raids, sailing on several ships. Moreover, the Scandinavians, who preferred to pay off in order to avoid a bloody battle, were no more cruel than their enemies. But technically they had some superiority. It is common knowledge that the Vikings had magnificent ships. Having borrowed the stirrup from the Avars and Magyars, the Scandinavians found wider use for it than their opponents - the Britons and Anglo-Saxons. In Britain, combat stirrups came into use only at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th century, after the second offensive of the Scandinavians. These warriors preferred the bow to any other weapon, which played a decisive role in their victory over the Celts. Most Scandinavians used a longbow, sometimes a reinforced bow, borrowed from eastern peoples. Warriors far north countries used flat bows.
The Scandinavian helmet was not “horned”, contrary to popular belief. Rather, it resembled a bell hat with a brim. References to "winged" and "horned" helmets in Anglo-Saxon manuscripts were probably poetic imagery. Their opponents, the Celts and Anglo-Saxons, also had a Scandinavian battle ax. The Viking sword, sharpened on one side, originated from the common Germanic Saxon of the first centuries.

The greatest impetus for the Viking invasion came from the emergence of kingdoms in Scandinavia, one of which was the Danish kingdom of York, which later transformed into the kingdom of Deinlo. It stretched from the borders of Scotland to the line connecting the River Thames with the Mersey. And although in the middle of the 10th century the Danelo was destroyed by the kingdom of Wessex, it had a strong influence on the military order of England at the end of the reign of the Anglo-Saxons. Danish settlers took over the existing districts, and then passed a law requiring military service for everyone who owned six plots of land. Many Danes settled in major cities, improving the defensive fortifications built by the Romans. Other towns became military bases, especially after the kingdom of Dainlaw had to take a defensive position against retaliatory attacks from the Anglo-Saxons.

Military formations in Wessex also underwent changes as a result of the Scandinavian invasion. After the crushing defeat of King Alfred's army in the winter of 876-877. the inhabitants of the kingdom were exclusively occupied with the problem of survival. For many months his people led guerrilla warfare, the springboard for which served as the impenetrable marshes of Somerset. From 879 to 954, after the conquest of the Scandinavian kingdom of York, Anglo-Saxon-ruled Wessex became operational again. Among other things, King Alfred changed some military laws.

The changes that took place encouraged everyone to defend their neighbors with greater courage, as well as the relatives of the local ruler, without turning to the king for help. This made the defense system more flexible, but led to the fragmentation of power. In parallel with this, there was a process of dying out of old tribal traditions and increasing power of local rulers. Fortified burghs became centers of local defense and local government. At the beginning of the 10th century, many such fortresses were built to defend cities. People from surrounding areas served in them. The fortifications of the cities once built by the Romans, which had a strategic purpose, were restored. Some of these ancient defensive structures remain to this day. The cities of Cantenbury, York and Nottingham expanded beyond the walls built by the Romans.
The Scandinavians influenced the life of the Celtic kingdoms in varying degrees. They left a significant mark on Scotland. The Vikings changed a lot in the lives of the Irish, especially in the military field. But their invasion into the life of Wales was quite insignificant. For several centuries the island kingdom, which was entirely Scandinavian, included Sheetland, Orkney, Hebrides and the Isle of Man.

Battle of Hastings

Norman shield

Norman clothing: 1. Shepherd. 2. Representative of the nobility. 3. Pilgrim. 4–8. Warriors. 9. Representative of the nobility. 10. Noble lady.

Northerners buckle with Byzantine ornament

The Youth of William the Conqueror

The heroism of glorious hearts weakens over time, but the desire to fight, seek and not give up remains.

Tennyson

Among the personalities that have gone down in history was a man famous for the fact that, more than anyone else, it seems, he personified his nation, being a symbol of Norman progressiveness, firmness and valor. He not only stood out among his compatriots in a remarkable way, but was one of the greatest people and rulers. There was no more despotic ruler in world history, and this contributed to the fact that he became the ruler of a powerful and to some extent reckless nation, which collected great wealth and took possession of huge territories. And all this might have slipped from his hands before he reached maturity, if not for the iron grip, speed and courage with which he confronted the trials. Mr. Johnson writes: "He was born to resist, to excite men's envy and awaken latent hostility, only to rise in triumph above all and show mankind the results of work which one man can achieve - a man of strong principles and determined a will that sets itself a definite goal and goes towards it, without turning back, with a firm step. He was a man who was feared and respected, but never loved, chosen, it seems, by Providence itself to upset the conclusion we had accepted and, opposing himself. folk heroes, crushing them and national sympathies, to prove to us that the progress of nations requires something more than mere popularity, purity and beauty of character, namely, the ability to think through your plans well and the willpower to carry them out, rebuilding outdated institutions and political life states. Being illegitimate, without the title of his dukedom, possessing only the will of his father, left at a young age with few friends and many enemies, fierce rivalries at home and an envious overlord who only rejoiced at the humiliation of his vassal, he gradually makes his way, acquires the dukedom and overcomes rivalry at an age when most of us are still under the supervision of educators and trustees; he expanded his possessions far beyond the limits that his ancestors had given him, and then, leaving native land in search of other conquests, he conquered another kingdom thanks to his irresistible energy. And, what is especially strange, he secured universal support for himself in his aggression, as if, having been unlawfully offended, he had achieved restoration of his rights. Indeed, the Normans did not have best representative their extraordinary power."

Wilhelm was seven years old or a little older when his father left him on a pilgrimage. His situation was desperate and pitiful, and from childhood he had to suffer from self-dislike. Neither justice, nor loyalty to his word, nor unexpected condescension - nothing in his character contributed to winning and maintaining friendship, although he was a real leader, a leader and deserved honest devotion, and not respect shown to him out of fear. His reign was truly a reign of force, but it should be noted that in an immoral age he was distinguished by purity and restraint. The fact that he did nothing wrong does not give reason to call him good, since good man- one who does good. However, his asceticism kept his head clear and his hands strong, allowing him to always be alert when others showed stupidity, so that again and again he was able to take advantage of any advantage and seize the key to success. When his father was alive, the barons were reluctant to show respect to the duke, and there was something akin to a grim compliance from which they did not escape. Duke Alan of Brittany justified the trust placed in him and always controlled any discord, preventing conspiracies against his ward. The old enmity between him and Robert was forgotten, but as a result Alan was still poisoned. And with Robert's death, which signaled the uprising of the nobility, William's life was in danger for decades. He never showed respect to the King of France, but long time and no one gave him his due; The barons considered it beneath their dignity to demonstrate loyalty and sometimes seemed to completely forget about the existence of the young duke, killing people of their circle in cruel quarrels. We find references to Wilhelm Talvas, still the sworn enemy of Richard's illegitimate son. There are many conspiracies and strife associated with him, and he seems determined that his curse will come true. This became the goal of his life. The courts of Montgomery and Beaumont were associated with him by anarchy and betrayal, and it was because of Montgomery’s evil hatred that the faithful Alan died. Wilhelm himself narrowly escaped death, while some of his friends were not so lucky.

All of them were in the well-fortified castle of Vaudreux, a place well known to the descendants of Longsword, because it was the home of Sperling, a wealthy miller, whom Espriot married. It was said about this fortress that it was the site of many crimes, but Duke Robert was ready to stake the glory of the castle and entrusted his boy to its walls. Never have these walls known a blacker atrocity, which was committed when William was only twelve years old; then in his room one of his friends was stabbed to death with a knife in his sleep. There is no doubt that Montgomery, who dealt the cruel blow, was sure that he had killed the young duke, and therefore retired satisfied with what he had done. But Wilhelm escaped: he was taken away and hidden in a peasant hut, while the murders of his friends continued. The country was swarming with his enemies. The population of Cotentin, always more Scandinavian than French, welcomed the possibility of independence, and the worst side of feudalism began to vigorously assert its rights. Man against man, upper class against lower class, peasant against soldier - bloody quarrels flared up more and more and destroyed everything around like a terrible epidemic. There was ample cause for unrest in the feudal state, not to mention the rights of an undesirable young pretender to the dukedom. It's interesting to see how public consciousness got along with the confrontation feudal system and loyalty to the idea of ​​a hereditary monarchy. Even the Great Hugh, King of France, long before the events described, was guided by this idea in his desire to use the chance to seize the throne. And although the vast empire of Charlemagne was subject to plunder and division for a long time, there was still a craving for stability and order, for an ideal monarchy.

Norman England

In the IX-X centuries. The Anglo-Saxons repelled the attack of the Vikings, but at the beginning of the 11th century they were completely conquered by the Danes. The second Scandinavian invasion was different from the first. The Danes adopted Christianity. The actions of their army, which consisted of professional, highly paid warriors, were skillfully planned and well coordinated. The army of one of the sides was led by Svein Fokbeid, a man of exceptional military talent. Athelred II was at the head of the army opposing him. Both commanders died before the end of the war, which took place in 1016. The Dane Cnut the Great was recognized as King of England.

After 26 years, a member of the oldest royal family from Wessex, Edward the Confessor, regained the throne peacefully. By this time the English army was under strong Scandinavian influence. When it was defeated at the Battle of Hastings in 1066, England was predominantly Anglo-Scandinavian.

Scandinavian military equipment from the 11th century reveals a strong eastern influence, which penetrated into England thanks to flourishing trade with the Slavs, Byzantium and eastern Islamic countries. After the Seljuk conquest of Transoxania by the Samanids, trade ties with eastern countries, the Scandinavians turned to the West. The result of Eastern influence on military traditions was the appearance of a high cone-shaped helmet and heavy chain mail. Scandinavian warriors came to like the spear tip with a curved edge after it fell out of use in Western Europe.

Now everyone who owned land was subject to military service, according to which he had to serve in the army, as well as build fortresses and bridges. For the construction of fortresses and bridges, one person was recruited from each land plot, and for military service - one person from every five plots. Many estates were surrounded by a palisade and a moat with a rampart. There was a guardhouse at the gate. The presence of bridges speeded up the movement of troops. If a person had a lot of land, he was automatically assigned to military service. In addition, the Anglo-Scandinavian warrior was given land as a reward for faithful service to the local lord or king after he left the army. His position was similar to that of the feudal warriors of European countries in the 11th century. The Anglo-Scandinavian chit had much in common with its successor, the Anglo-Norman knight. These knights, who were excellent warriors, formed the king's personal army. The Royal Guard was established in 1018 by Cnut the Great, who assembled an army of 1,000 soldiers who received payment for their service. He was probably exemplified by the professional Viking army that arrived in England with Svein Fkbeid.

Although many of these warriors spent some time serving in the garrisons of fortified cities, they represented a highly mobile, well-trained army designed for offensive operations. The larger army was used solely for defense. The chronicles also mention Welsh allies who were mercenaries or supporters of the Welsh rulers. Until 1051 there was a mercenary Navy, led by Edward the Confessor.
The quartermaster service and convoy service were reminiscent in structure and complexity of similar services of the late Middle Ages. The Anglo-Scandinavian army included cavalry and archers. Many of the rich thens, like the warriors of the royal guard, had horses, although they usually fought on foot.

The burden of military service was unevenly distributed between regions. The ancient kingdom of Wessex hosted more Active participation in the formation of the army than the kingdoms of the north and east of the country. Participation in military campaigns by the main part of the population was minimal. Basically, it was expressed in the payment of taxes, receiving which the king could hire professional mercenaries to serve. In this aspect, England during the times of the Anglo-Scandinavians resembled England during the times of the Anglo-Normans. In battle, the tens tried to stay close to the royal guard, although they had their own counts, bishops and sheriffs. At the gatherings, the keols, who owned one plot of land, had to follow the local tens. These warriors took part in the defense of cities and coasts, and were less often used during sieges. They were not the poorest peasants and stood on social ladder not much below the tens. The elders, who had previously played a significant role, were replaced by counts who ruled large provinces and controlled the armies of their domains.

Flail as a military weapon

Robert, Duke of Normandy makes a pilgrimage to Jerusalem

Norman ploughman