Social psychology is a scientific discipline born at the intersection of two sciences (psychology and sociology), which introduces certain difficulties in formulating the subject of social psychology research and in determining the range of problems being studied.

Sociology (from Latin socius - social + other Greek Xbuos; - science) is the science of society, the systems that make it up, the patterns of its functioning and development, social institutions, relationships and communities.

Social psychology is a science that studies psychological phenomena (processes, states and properties) that characterize the individual and group as subjects of social interaction.

The subject of social psychology is a system of socio-psychological phenomena based on the mental interaction of people, in connection with which social psychology studies:
psychological processes, states and properties of an individual that manifest themselves as a result of his inclusion in relationships with other people, in various social groups (family, educational and work groups, etc.) and in general in the system of social relations (economic, political, managerial , legal, etc.), the most frequently studied are sociability, aggressiveness, compatibility with other people, conflict potential, etc.;
the phenomenon of interaction between people, for example, marital, child-parent, pedagogical, psychotherapeutic, etc.; Moreover, interaction can be not only interpersonal, but also between an individual and a group, as well as intergroup;
psychological processes, states and properties of various social groups as integral entities that differ from each other and cannot be reduced to any individual; The greatest interest of social psychologists is in studies of the socio-psychological climate of the group and conflict relations (group states), leadership and group actions (group processes), cohesion, teamwork and conflict (group properties), etc.;
mass mental phenomena such as crowd behavior, panic, rumors, fashion, mass enthusiasm, jubilation, apathy, fears, etc.

The object of social psychology is various social communities of people; psychology of the individual as a member of these communities:
personality in a group (system of relations),
interaction in the “person - personality” system (parent - child, manager - performer, doctor - patient, psychologist - client, etc.),
small group (family, school class, work team, military crew, group of friends, etc.),
interaction in the “person - group” system (leader - followers, leader - work collective, commander - platoon, newcomer - school class, etc.),
interaction in the “group - group” system (team competition, group negotiations, intergroup conflicts, etc.),
a large social group (ethnicity, party, social movement, social strata, territorial, religious groups, etc.).

In accordance with the main objects of research, modern social psychology has been differentiated into such sections as:
social psychology of personality,
psychology of interpersonal interaction (communication and relationships),
small group psychology,
psychology of intergroup interaction,
psychology of large social groups and mass phenomena.

Within the framework of social psychology, several psychological schools can be distinguished: functionalism, behaviorism, humanistic psychology, cognitivism and interactionism.

Functionalism (or functional psychology) arose under the influence of the evolutionary theory in biology of Charles Darwin and the evolutionary theory of social Darwinism of G. Spencer, who believed that the basic law of social development is the law of survival of the fittest societies and social groups. Representatives of functionalism (D. Dewey, D. Angell, G. Carr, etc.) studied people and social groups from the point of view of their social adaptation - adaptation to difficult living conditions. The main socio-psychological problem of functionalism is the problem of the most optimal conditions for social adaptation of subjects of public life.

Behaviorism (later neobehaviorism) is behavioral psychology that studies the problems of patterns of human and animal behavior (I.V. Pavlov, V.M. Bekhterev, D. Watson, B. Skinner, etc.). Behavior was viewed as an objective, observable reality that could be studied under experimental conditions. The central problem of behaviorism is the problem of learning, i.e. gaining individual experience through trial and error. Four laws of learning have been identified: the law of effect, the law of exercise, the law of readiness and the law of associative shift.

The psychoanalytic direction is associated with the name of S. Freud, who studied the problems of unconscious, irrational processes in the individual and in his behavior. He believed that the central driving force of a person is a set of drives. Some of the aspects of this direction were developed in the works of K. Jung and A. Adler. Social and psychological problems of the direction: the conflict between man and society, manifested in the clash of human drives with social prohibitions; the problem of sources of social activity of the individual.

Humanistic psychology (G. Allport, A. Maslow, K. Rogers, etc.) studied a person as a fully developing personality who strives to realize his potential and achieve self-actualization and personal growth. Every normal person has a tendency towards self-expression and self-realization.

Cognitivism interprets human social behavior as a set of predominantly cognitive processes and places emphasis on the process of a person’s cognition of the world, his comprehension of the essence of phenomena through basic cognitive mental processes (memory, attention, etc.). In the course of this cognition, his impressions of the world are transformed into a system of images, on the basis of which various ideas, beliefs, expectations and attitudes are formed, which ultimately determine his actions and actions. Representatives of these directions S. Asch, K. Levin, T. Newcomb, F. Heider, L. Festinger and others made a serious contribution to social psychology. The problem of cognitivism is human decision making. Representatives of the cognitive school (J. Piaget, J. Bruner, R. Atkinson, etc.) paid special attention to human knowledge and methods of its formation.

Interactionism (later symbolic interactionism) explored the problems of the social aspect of interaction between people in the process of activity and communication. The main idea of ​​interactionism: personality is always social and cannot be formed outside of society. Particular importance was attached to communication as the exchange of symbols and the development of common meanings and meanings.

Reduces socio-psychological phenomena to interpersonal interaction, seeing in it the source of explanation of the essence, origin and dynamics of these phenomena. He explains the formation of personality by situations of communication and interaction of people with each other, which should be understood as systems of mutually oriented actions and reactions unfolded over time. The state of society, relationships and personality, according to its ideologists (E. Hoffman, R. Linton, T. Newcome, M. Sheriff, etc.), are nothing more than a product of communication between people, the result of their adaptation to each other.

The entire set of methods of socio-psychological research can be divided into two large groups: research methods and methods of influence. The latter belong to a specific area of ​​social psychology, the “psychology of influence.”

Among the research methods, a distinction is made between methods of collecting information and methods of processing it. Data processing methods are often not allocated to a special block, since most of them are not specific to social psychological research.

Methods of collecting information: observation, reading documents (content analysis), surveys (questionnaires, interviews), tests (the most common sociometric test), experiment (laboratory, natural).

Let us consider the leading methods of socio-psychological research.

Observation in social psychology is a method of collecting information through direct, targeted and systematic perception and recording of socio-psychological phenomena (facts of behavior and activity) in natural conditions. The observation method can be used as one of the central, independent research methods.

The object of observation is individuals, small groups and large social communities (for example, a crowd) and the social processes occurring in them, for example, panic.

The subject of observation is usually the verbal and nonverbal acts of behavior of an individual or a group as a whole in a certain social situation. To the most typical verbal and non-verbal characteristics of A.L. Zhuravlev includes speech acts (their content, direction and sequence, frequency, duration and intensity, as well as expressiveness); expressive movements (expression of the eyes, face, body, etc.); physical actions, i.e. touching, pushing, hitting, joint actions, etc.

The main disadvantages of this method include:
high subjectivity in data collection introduced by the observer (halo, contrast, leniency, modeling, etc. effects) and the observed (observer presence effect);
the predominantly qualitative nature of observational findings;
relative limitations in generalizing study results.

Ways to increase the reliability of observation results are associated with the use of reliable observation schemes, technical means of recording data, training the observer, and minimizing the effect of the presence of the observer.

The document analysis method is a type of method for analyzing the products of human activity. A document is any information recorded in printed or handwritten text, on magnetic or photo media.

All methods of document analysis are divided into traditional (qualitative) and formalized (qualitative-quantitative). Any method is based on the mechanisms of the text understanding process, i.e. the researcher's interpretation of the information contained in the document.

Content analysis (content analysis) is a method of translating textual information into quantitative indicators with its subsequent statistical processing. The quantitative characteristics of the text obtained using content analysis make it possible to draw conclusions about the qualitative, including latent (not explicit) content of the text. In this regard, the content analysis method is often referred to as qualitative-quantitative analysis of documents.

The survey method is a very common method in social psychological research. The essence of the method is to obtain information about objective or subjective (opinions, moods, motives, relationships, etc.) facts from the words of the respondents.

Among the numerous types of surveys, two main types are most common:
a) direct survey (“face to face”) - an interview, a face-to-face survey conducted by a researcher in the form of questions and answers with the interviewee (respondent);
b) correspondence survey - questioning using a questionnaire (questionnaire) designed for self-completion by the respondents themselves.

The source of information during a survey is the verbal or written judgment of the person being interviewed. The depth, completeness of answers, and their reliability depend on the researcher’s ability to correctly construct the questionnaire design. There are special techniques and rules for conducting a survey.

An interview is a type of survey. There are two types: standardized and non-standardized interviews. In the first case, the interview assumes the presence of standard formulations of questions and their sequence, determined in advance.

The non-standardized interview technique is characterized by flexibility and variation over a wide range. The interviewer is guided only by the general plan of the survey, formulating questions in accordance with the specific situation and the respondent’s answers.

It is customary to identify key phases: establishing contact, the main part and completion of the interview. Criteria for the effectiveness of the interview: completeness (breadth) - it should allow the interviewee to cover, as fully as possible, various aspects of the problem being discussed; specificity (concreteness) - it must provide accurate answers for each aspect of the problem that is significant for the respondent; depth (personal meaning) - it must reveal the emotional, cognitive and value aspects of the respondent’s attitude to the situation under discussion; personal context - the interview is designed to reveal characteristics of the interviewee’s personality and life experiences.

Types of surveys are divided by the number of respondents (individual and group), by location, and by the method of distribution of questionnaires (handout, postal, press). Among the most significant disadvantages of handout, and especially postal and press surveys are the low percentage of questionnaires returned, lack of control over the quality of filling out questionnaires, and the use of only questionnaires that are very simple in structure and volume.

The preference for the type of survey is determined by the goals of the study, its program, and the level of knowledge of the issue. The main advantage of questionnaires is associated with the possibility of mass coverage of a large number of respondents and its professional accessibility. The information obtained in an interview is more meaningful and in-depth compared to a questionnaire. However, the disadvantage is, first of all, the difficult-to-control influence of the personality and professional level of the interviewer on the interviewee, which can lead to a distortion of the objectivity and reliability of the information.

Group assessment method (GAL) is a method of obtaining characteristics of a person in a specific group based on mutual questioning of its members about each other.

This method allows you to assess the presence and degree of expression (development) of a person’s psychological qualities, which are manifested in behavior and activity, in interaction with other people. The widespread use of GOL for applied and research purposes is associated with its simplicity and accessibility for users, the ability to diagnose those human qualities for which there are no reliable tools (tests, questionnaires), etc. The psychological basis of GOL is the socio-psychological phenomenon of group ideas about each member groups as a result of mutual knowledge of people with each other in the process of communication.

A test is a short, standardized, usually time-limited test. With the help of tests in social psychology, inter-individual and inter-group differences are determined. On the one hand, it is believed that tests are not a specific socio-psychological method, and all methodological standards accepted in general psychology are also valid for social psychology.

On the other hand, the wide range of used socio-psychological methods for diagnosing individuals and groups, intergroup interaction allows us to talk about tests as an independent means of empirical research.

Areas of application of tests in social psychology:
group diagnostics,
the study of interpersonal and intergroup relations and social perception,
socio-psychological properties of the individual (social intelligence, social competence, leadership style, etc.).

The testing procedure involves the subject (a group of subjects) performing a special task or receiving answers to a number of questions that are indirect in nature in the tests. The point of subsequent processing is to use a “key” to correlate the received data with certain assessment parameters, for example, with personality characteristics. The final measurement result is expressed in a test indicator.

The term “experiment” has two meanings in social psychology:
experience and testing, as is customary in the natural sciences;
research in the logic of identifying cause-and-effect relationships. One of the existing definitions of the experimental method indicates that it involves interaction organized by the researcher between the subject (or group) and the experimental situation in order to establish the patterns of this interaction. Among the specific features of an experiment are the modeling of phenomena and research conditions (experimental situation); active influence of the researcher on the phenomena (variation of variables); measuring the reactions of subjects to this influence; reproducibility of results.

The experiment is criticized primarily for its low ecological validity, that is, the impossibility of transferring conclusions obtained in an experimental situation beyond its boundaries (into natural conditions).

Nevertheless, there is a point of view that the problem of the validity of an experiment is not that the facts obtained in the experiment have no scientific value, but in their adequate theoretical interpretation.

Despite many critical assessments of this method, the experiment remains an important means of obtaining reliable information in social psychological research.

The sociometry method refers to the tools for socio-psychological research into the structure of small groups, as well as the individual as a member of the group. The area of ​​measurement using sociometric technology is the diagnosis of interpersonal and intragroup relationships. Using the sociometric method, they study the typology of social behavior in group activities, evaluate the cohesion and compatibility of group members.

A sociometric procedure may aim to:
a) measuring the degree of cohesion-disunity in the group;
b) identification of “sociometric positions”, i.e. the relative authority of group members on the basis of sympathy and antipathy, where the “leader” of the group and the “rejected” are at the extreme poles;
c) detection of intragroup subsystems, cohesive formations, which may have their own informal leaders at their head.

The use of sociometry makes it possible to measure the authority of formal and informal leaders to regroup people in teams so as to reduce tension in the team that arises due to the mutual hostility of some group members. The sociometric technique is carried out using a group method; its implementation does not require much time (up to 15 minutes). It is very useful in applied research, especially in work to improve relationships in a team. But it is not a radical way to resolve intra-group problems, the causes of which should be sought not in the likes and dislikes of group members, but in deeper sources.

The measurement involves surveying each member of a small group in order to identify those group members with whom he would prefer (choose) or, on the contrary, would not want to participate in a certain type of activity or situation. The measurement procedure includes the following elements:
determination of the option (number) of elections (deviations);
selection of survey criteria (questions);
organizing and conducting a survey;
processing and interpretation of results using quantitative (sociometric indices) and graphic (sociogram) analysis methods.

1. Subject and tasks of social psychology. Branches of social psychology.

Social Psychology is a branch of psychological science that studies the patterns of the emergence and functioning of socio-psychological phenomena 1, which are the result of the interaction of people (and their groups) as representatives of various communities.

Item– socio-psychological phenomena and processes that are the result of the interaction of people as representatives of various social communities.

An object– specific social communities (groups) or their individual representatives (people).

Objectives of social psychology as a science. Social psychology as a branch of scientific research has its own specific tasks, including:

studying: a) the specificity and originality of the phenomena that make up the social consciousness of people; b) relationships between its components;

c) the influence of the latter on the development and life of society;

study of the most significant features and differences of socio-psychological phenomena and processes from other psychological and social phenomena that arise as a result of interaction, communication and relationships between people in various communities;

identifying patterns of functioning of socio-psychological phenomena and processes in various social conditions;

socio-psychological analysis of interaction, communication and relationships between people, as well as factors determining the specificity and effectiveness of their influence on joint activities;

a comprehensive study of the socio-psychological characteristics of the individual and the uniqueness of his socialization in various social conditions;

understanding the specifics of the functioning of socio-psychological phenomena and processes that arise in a small group, and their influence on the behavior, communication and interaction of people in it;

research into the uniqueness of the psychology of large social groups and the specific manifestations of motivational, intellectual-cognitive, emotional-volitional and communicative-behavioral characteristics of the people who are their members;

identifying the role and significance of religious psychology in the lives and activities of people, its socio-psychological content and forms of manifestation, as well as the specifics of its influence on the communication and interaction of individuals;

a comprehensive study of the socio-psychological features of political life and political activity of people, the uniqueness of the transformation of the human psyche and groups of people who are under the direct influence of political processes occurring in society;

study of mass socio-psychological phenomena and processes, their role and significance in public life, influence on the actions and behavior of people in extreme situations;

forecasting political, national and other processes in the development of the state (society) based on taking into account socio-psychological laws and mechanisms.

Branches of social psychology.

The problems solved by social psychology as a science, as well as the great diversity and complexity of the socio-psychological phenomena that it studies and the communities in which they arise, determined the emergence and development of its specific industries.

Ethnic psychology studies the psychological characteristics of people as representatives of various ethnic communities.

Psychology of religion studies the psychology of people involved in various religious communities, as well as their religious activities.

Political psychology explores various aspects of psychological phenomena and processes related to the sphere of political life of society and political activity of people.

Psychology of management pays main attention to the analysis of problems associated with the impact on groups, society as a whole or its individual links with the aim of streamlining them, maintaining qualitative specificity, improvement and development.

Psychology of Social Impact, The branch of social psychology, which is still poorly developed, studies the characteristics, patterns and methods of influencing people and groups in various conditions of their life and activity.

Psychology of communication reveals the uniqueness of the processes of interaction and exchange of information between people and social groups.

Psychology of family (family relationships) sets itself the task of comprehensively studying the specifics of relations between members of the initial cell of human society.

Psychology of conflict relationships (conflictology), a rapidly progressing branch of social psychology, aimed at a thorough study of the psychological characteristics of various conflicts and identifying ways to most effectively resolve them.

2 . Psychology of communication. Contents, means, goals of communication. Forms, types, functions of communication. Interaction in the process of communication.

The concept and essence of communication.

Communication- a complex multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts and connections between people, generated by the needs of joint activities and including the exchange of information and development of a unified interaction strategy.

Communication is included in the practical interaction of people (joint work, learning, collective play, etc.) and ensures planning, implementation and control of their activities.

During communication, its participants exchange not only their physical actions or products, the results of labor, but also thoughts, intentions, ideas, experiences, etc.

Communication in its content is the most complex psychological activity of partners.

Features and functions of communication.

Communication usually manifests itself in the unity of its five sides: interpersonal, cognitive, communicative-informational, emotive and conative.

Interpersonal side communication reflects the interaction of a person with his immediate environment.

Cognitive side communication allows you to answer questions about who the interlocutor is, what kind of person he is, what can be expected from him, and many others related to the personality of the partner.

Communication and information side represents an exchange between people of various ideas, ideas, interests, moods, feelings, attitudes, etc.

Emotive side communication is associated with the functioning of emotions and feelings, mood in personal contacts of partners.

Conative (behavioral) one hundred rona communication serves the purpose of reconciling internal and external contradictions in the positions of partners.

Communication performs certain functions:

Pragmatic function communication reflects its need-motivational reasons and is realized through the interaction of people in the process of joint activity.

Formation function and times orbit reflects the ability of communication to influence partners, developing and improving them in all respects.

By communicating with other people, a person learns universal human experience, historically established social norms, values, knowledge and methods of activity, and is also formed as a person. Confirmation function

provides people with the opportunity to know, affirm and confirm themselves. Merge-unlink function

of people. Organization and maintenance function relations

serves the interests of establishing and maintaining fairly stable and productive connections, contacts and relationships between people in the interests of their joint activities. Intrapersonal function

communication is realized in a person’s communication with himself (through internal or external speech, built according to the type of dialogue).

Types of communication:Interpersonal generaltionassociated with direct

tacts of people in groups or pairs, constant in the composition of participants.- Mass communicationthis is a lot of direct contactsstrangers, as well asnication mediated by various

types of media. interpersonal communication.

Participants in communication are specific individuals who have specific individual qualities that are revealed during the course of communication and the organization of joint actions. When role-playing

communication, its participants act as bearers of certain roles (buyer-seller, teacher-student, boss-subordinate). In role-based communication, a person is deprived of a certain spontaneity of his behavior, since certain of his steps and actions are dictated by the role he plays.

trustworthy. Particularly significant information is transmitted during the process.

Confidencecharacterized by mutual confrontation between people, expressions of displeasure and mistrust.

Personal communication- This is an exchange of informal information.

Business conversation- the process of interaction between people performing joint responsibilities or involved in the same activity.

Direct(direct) communicationis historically the first form of communication between people.

Indirect communication- This is interaction using additional means (writing, audio and video technology).

Means of communication:

Verbal communication two types of speech: oral and written. Written speech is the one taught in school. Oral speech, independent speech with its own rules and grammar.

Nonverbal means of communication are needed in order to: regulate the flow of the communication process, create psychological contact between partners; enrich the meanings conveyed by words, guide the interpretation of the verbal text; express emotions and reflect the interpretation of a situation.

They are divided into:

1. Visual means of communication are (kinesics - movements of the arms, legs, head, torso; direction of gaze and visual contact; eye expression; facial expression; posture, skin reactions, etc.)

2. Acoustic(sound) means of communication are (paralinguistic, i.e. related to speech (intonation, volume, timbre, tone, rhythm, pitch, speech pauses and their localization in the text, extralinguistic, i.e. not related to speech ( laughter, crying, coughing, sighing, gnashing of teeth, sniffling, etc.).

3. Tactile-kinesthetic(related to touch) means of communication are (physical impact (leading a blind person by the hand, contact dance, etc.); takeshika (shaking hands, clapping on the shoulder).

4. Olfactory means of communication are: pleasant and unpleasant odors of the environment; natural, artificial human odors, etc.

Brief outline of the development of social psychology

Social Psychology- a branch of psychology that studies the patterns, characteristics of behavior and activities of people determined by their social interaction.

Social psychology arose in the second half of the 19th century. at the junction and . Its emergence was preceded by a long period of accumulation of knowledge about man and society. Initially, socio-psychological ideas were formed within the framework of philosophy, sociology, anthropology, ethnography and linguistics. Concepts such as “psychology of peoples”, “instincts of the masses”, etc. were introduced. Certain essentially socio-psychological ideas were already found in the works of Plato and Aristotle, French materialist philosophers, utopian socialists, and then in the works of L. Feuerbach and G. Hegel.

In the middle of the 19th century. social psychology emerged as an independent, but still descriptive science. Its origin is associated with the creation in Germany in 1859 of G. Steinthal and M. Lazarus of the “Journal of Ethnic Psychology and Linguistics.”

Major representatives of empirical social psychology in Europe were the French lawyer and sociologist G. Tarde, the French sociologist G. Lsbon and the English psychologist W. McDougall. These scientists back in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. tried to substantiate the social development of society by individual mental properties of a person: Tarde - imitativeness, Lebon - mental infection, McDougall - instincts.

G. Tarde widely used socio-psychological concepts in his criminological studies.

According to the concept of G. Tarde (1843-1904), social development is determined by factors of interpersonal influence, especially imitation, customs, and fashion. Thanks to imitation, according to Tarde, group and social norms and values ​​arise. By assimilating them, individuals adapt to the conditions of social life. The lower strata are especially diligent in imitating the higher strata. But the inability to achieve the ideal gives rise to social opposition and conflict in social interaction. Tarde was the first to deeply develop the psychology of the crowd as a factor in the suppression of individuality. Under the influence of Tarde's ideas, two types of heredity began to be distinguished - natural and social.

Another French sociologist and social psychologist G. Lebon (1841 - 1931) developed an emotional theory of social processes, introducing the concept of mental infection.

A number of conceptual psychological principles were put forward by the founder of the French sociological school, E. Durkheim (1858-1917). As the main explanatory principle of human behavior, Durkheim put forward phenomenon of “collective ideas”(“Individual and collective ideas” (1898)), which, in his opinion, determine the vision of the world by an individual. The behavior of an individual, according to Durkheim, is determined by the collective consciousness.

In contrast to the “social atomization” of G. Tarde (who considered the individual to be the “cell of society”), E. Durkheim defended the idea unity of society based on generally recognized social values. The social quality of people's behavior, as Durkheim rightly believed, depends on the value-normative integration of society and the development of its social connections. The value-normative crisis of society gives rise to massive legal desocialization, which Durkheim called anomie(French anomie - absence of law). In a state of anomie, the significance of social and, above all, legal norms is lost for many members of society. An individual deprived of standard patterns of behavior sharply reduces the level of self-regulation and goes beyond social control. Anomie, which gives rise to mass deviance, prepares and brings closer, according to Durkheim, socio-economic changes in society.

G. Tarde, G. Le Bon and E. Durkheim provided significant influence on the development of social psychology, affirming the primacy of the social factor in the formation of personality.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. English psychologist W. McDougall (1871 - 1938) made an attempt to systematize socio-psychological knowledge. In 1908, his book “Introduction to Social Psychology” was published. This year is considered in the West to be the year of the final formation of social psychology as an independent science.

In the 20s XX century, thanks to the works of the German researcher V. Mede, a new stage in the development of social psychology begins - the emergence of experimental social psychology. By conducting experiments with one subject and then including him in a group of subjects, Mede established differences in the ability of people to endure pain and perform physical and mental actions in a group and alone. At the same time, Mede established different types of people in their relation to the social group (neutral, positive and negative). He also found that the influence of the group is especially great in the spheres of emotions, will and motor skills. It was found that socio-psychological factors influence all the mental qualities of an individual - perception and thinking, memory and imagination, emotions and will. Later, evaluative deformations were also discovered—conformism (the assimilation of an individual’s assessments to generally accepted assessments).

Following V. Mede, the American psychologist G. Allport (1897-1967) improved the methodology of socio-psychological experimental research. Based on his research, practically effective recommendations were made to improve the organization of production, advertising, political propaganda, military affairs, etc. Social psychology began to develop intensively as an applied science. In the USA, extensive research began to be carried out on problems of management, psychological compatibility, reducing tension between entrepreneurs and workers, etc.

Further development of the methodology for socio-psychological research belongs to the American social psychologist and psychiatrist J. (J.) Moreno (1892-1974). Moreno developed sociometry method— a system of methods for identifying and quantitatively measuring interpersonal relationships of people in small groups. Revealing personal likes and dislikes, Moreno graphically displayed these relationships in the form of sociograms (Fig. 96, 97).

Moreno made a significant contribution to the development of social psychology of small groups, expanded the concepts of “group status of the individual”, “intragroup dynamics”, etc., proposed specific methods for mitigating intra-group conflicts, optimizing the socio-psychological climate in small groups. For a long time he was the head of the Institute of Sociometry and Psychodrama, also known as the Moreno Institute, which he created in 1940.

Rice. 96. Sociogram

Using this sociogram, it is possible to identify the core of the group, that is, individuals with stable positive relationships (A, B, Y, I); the presence of other (non-central) local groups (B-P, S-E); a person who enjoys the greatest authority in a certain respect (A); a person who does not enjoy sympathy (L); mutually negative relationships (P-S), lack of stable social connections (K)

Rice. 97. Symbolism of the sociogram

Following Moreno, foreign social psychologists began to consider a small group, a social microenvironment, as the main element, the “cell” of society. In the “society-group-individual” system, the middle link was absolutized. The complete dependence of the individual on the social role he performs, group norms, and group pressure was postulated.

The most significant direction in modern foreign social psychology is interactionism- highlights the problem of social interaction - interaction. This direction is based on the views of the famous sociologist and social psychologist J. G. Mead (1863-1931). The main categories of this socio-psychological trend are those introduced by Mead in the 1930s. concepts of “social role”, “intragroup interaction” (“interaction”), etc.

Representatives of this direction (T. Kuhn, A. Rose, T. Shibutani, etc.) brought to the fore a complex of socio-psychological problems: communication, communicativeness, social norms, social roles, individual status in the group, reference group, etc. Conceptual the apparatus developed by J. G. Mead and his followers is widespread in social psychological science. The most important achievement in this direction is recognition of the social conditioning of the individual’s psyche. Psychology ceased to be interpreted as the psychology of the individual; general psychology became increasingly integrated with social psychology.

Recently, empirical interactionist studies of “everyday” psychology have become widespread abroad. Similar works by domestic authors have appeared.

The first surge in the development of domestic social psychology occurred in the 20s. XX century. However, against the backdrop of reflexology and reactology, which were then dominant, the interpretation of socio-psychological problems received a biologizing bias. The criticism of this bias turned into a criticism of social psychology. And by the end of the 1920s. social psychology, as something competing with Marxist ideology, ceased to exist.

The intensive development of social psychology in our country began again only in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

A variety of experimental, theoretical and applied socio-psychological research began to be carried out." However, the achievements of domestic social psychology have not yet been consolidated into a coherent system of categories. In a number of cases, researchers remain at the descriptive-empirical level.

Modern social psychology is developing most intensively in the USA. The concept of interactivity and interpersonal interaction has recently become widespread.

Structure of social psychology how science is determined by the system of its main categories:

• the concept of social community;
• features of human behavior in a socially unorganized and in a socially organized community;
• concept of social group, classification of social groups;
• socio-psychological organization of small groups;
• modification of individual behavior in a social group;
• communication as a means of social interaction;
• interpersonal interaction in the process of communication;
• psychology of large social groups;
• psychology of mass communication and mass social phenomena;
• psychology of social management.

Methods of social psychology: natural and laboratory group experiment, content analysis, factor analysis, sociometry, dummy group method, expert assessment method, etc.

Object of social psychology– an individual from a group, a small, medium or large social group, interpersonal or intergroup interaction.

Tasks of social psychology

Below is a list of the main tasks of social psychology, but in reality the list is much wider; each individual task contains a number of additional tasks:

• Studying the phenomenon of human interaction, information exchange;
• Mass mental phenomena;
• Socio-psychological characteristics of social groups as integral structures;
• Mechanisms of social influence on a person and his involvement in society as a subject of social life and social interaction;
• Creation of theoretical and practical recommendations for improving the interaction of people and social groups:
  • Further development of social psychology as a multi-level knowledge system;
  • Research and problem solving in small groups (hierarchy, leadership, manipulation, interpersonal relationships, conflicts, etc.);
  • Research and problem solving in large groups (nations, classes, unions, etc.);
  • Study of the socio-psychological activity of the individual in a team.

Problems of social psychology

A short list of the main problems of social psychology:

• Intragroup fluctuations;
• Stages of development of social groups;
• Intragroup and intergroup leadership;
• Psychological characteristics of social groups;
• Communication and interpersonal relationships in a social group;
• Intergroup social relations;
• Psychology of large, medium and small social groups and mass media;
• Mass socio-psychological phenomena (Mass mood, consciousness, mental infection, etc.);
• Human adaptation and its features in social environments;
• Management of socio-psychological processes.

• More details in the article

Methods of social psychology

Social psychology uses methods of general psychology and sociology:

• survey;
• interviewing;
• conversation;
• group experiment;
• studying documents;
• observation (included and not included).

Social psychology also has its own specific methods, for example the method sociometry- measuring the private relationships of people in groups. The basis of sociometry is the statistical processing of test subjects’ answers to questions related to their desire to interact with members of a certain group. The data obtained as a result of sociometry is called sociogram(Fig. 1), which has specific symbolism (Fig. 2).

Rice. 1. Sociogram. Using this sociogram, it is possible to identify the central core of the group, that is, individuals with stable positive relationships (A, B, Y, I); presence of other groups (B-P, S-E); a person who enjoys the greatest authority in a certain respect (A); a person who does not enjoy sympathy (L); mutually negative relationships (M-N); lack of stable social connections (M).

Rice. 2. Sociogram symbols.

History of social psychology

Social psychology as a separate field of psychology took shape only by the middle of the 19th century, but the period of accumulation of knowledge about society and man in particular began long before that. In the philosophical works of Aristotle and Plato one can find socio-psychological ideas, French materialist philosophers and utopian socialists made significant contributions, and later the works of Hegel and Feuerbach. Until the 19th century, socio-psychological knowledge was formalized within the framework of sociology and philosophy.

The first stage in the formation of social psychology as an independent field of psychological science is considered to be the second half of the 19th century, but it was only a theoretical and empirical science, all activity consisted of describing observed processes. This transition period is associated with the emergence of a journal on linguistics and ethnopsychology in 1899 in Germany, founded by Lazarus Moritz(Lazarus Moritz, philosopher and writer, Germany) and Heyman Steinthal(Heymann Steinthal, philosopher and philologist, Germany).

The first outstanding personalities on the path of development of empirical social psychology are William McDougall(McDougall, psychologist, England), Gustave Lebon(Gustave Le Bon, psychologist and sociologist, France) and Jean Gabriel Tarde(Gabriel Tarde, criminologist and sociologist, France). Each of these scientists put forward his own theories and justifications for the development of society by the properties of an individual personality: W. McDougall justified instinctive behavior, G. Lebon - from the point of view, G. Tarde - .

1908 is considered the starting point of Western social psychology, thanks to the publication of the book " Introduction to Social Psychology» W. McDougall.

In the 1920s, thanks to the published works of the researcher V. Mede(Walther Moede, psychologist, Germany), who first used mathematical methods of analysis, began a new stage in the history of social psychology - experimental social psychology(Experimentelle Massenpsychologie). It was V. Mede who first recorded a significant difference in the abilities of people in groups and alone, for example, pain tolerance in a group, sustained attention, etc. The discovery of the influence of groups in the emotional and volitional spheres of a person is also important.

The next significant step in the development of social psychology was detailing the methodology of a mass socio-psychological experiment an outstanding psychologist Gordon Willard Allport(Gordon Willard Allport, USA). This technique entailed a lot of experimental work, which was based on the development of recommendations for the development of advertising, political propaganda, military affairs and much more.

W. Allport and V. Mede set a point of no return in the development of social psychology from theory to practice. In particular, in the USA, social psychology is closely related to the business sphere and is an applied science. Large-scale studies of professional diagnostics, management problems, manager-employee relations and much more.

A further significant event in the development of the methodological field of social psychology was the development and creation of the method sociometry Jacoba Levi Moreno(Jacob Levy Moreno, psychiatrist and sociologist, USA). According to Moreno's work, the framework of all social groups determines the syntonicity (liking/antipathy) of individual members of this group. Jacob Moreno argued that all social problems are solvable with the correct division and unification of individuals into microgroups according to their sympathies, values, behavior and inclinations (if an activity satisfies a person, he does it as well as possible).

In all areas of Western social psychology, the basic element is "cage" of society- microenvironment of society, a small group, that is, the average structure in the standard scheme “Society - Group - Personality”. A person is dependent on his social role in the group, on its standards, requirements, and norms.

In Western social psychology, the field theory Kurt Tzadek Lewin(Kurt Zadek Lewin, psychologist, Germany, USA), according to which the individual is constantly influenced by the field of attraction and the field of repulsion.

The concepts of Western social psychology are based on psychological determinism, unrelated to economic conditions. Human behavior is explained by psychological reasons: aggressiveness, sexuality, etc. All concepts of Western social psychology are divided into four areas:

1. Psychoanalytic;
2. Neo-behaviourist;
3. Cognitive;
4. Interactionist.

Areas of social psychology

Psychoanalytic direction of social psychology based on the concept and socio-psychological views of Sigmund Freud, on the basis of which modern followers have created several theories, one of which has been put forward Wilfred Ruprecht Bayon(Wilfred Ruprecht Bion, psychoanalyst, England), according to which a social group is a macrotype of an individual, that is, the characteristics and qualities of groups, like individual people. Interpersonal needs = biological needs. All people have a need to be liked by other people and desire to join a group (the need to belong). The group leader has the highest regulatory function.

Neo-Freudians of social psychology seek explanations for interpersonal relationships in the subconscious and human emotions.

Neo-behaviourist direction of social psychology is based on observational facts, excluding specific properties of human behavior, theoretical materials, areas of values ​​and motivations. In the concept of the neo-behavioristic direction, behavior directly depends on learning. According to non-behavioristic judgments, the organism adapts to conditions, but the principle of transforming these conditions as a result of human activity is rejected. The main neo-behaviouristic thesis: the genesis of an individual is determined by the random reinforcements of his reactions. One of the main representatives of the neo-behaviouristic direction is Burress Frederick Skinner(Burrhus Frederic Skinner, psychologist and writer, USA), according to his works, the composition of human behavior depends on the consequences of this behavior (operant conditioning).

One of the most famous theories of the neo-behaviorist direction is the theory of aggression, which is based on the “aggression-frustration” hypothesis (1930), according to which an aggressive state is the basis of the behavior of all people.

Neo-Freudians and neo-behaviorists have the same interpretation of human behavior, which is based on the desire for pleasure, and all the needs and environment of a person are not associated with historical conditions.

At the core cognitivist direction of social psychology(cognition) are the features of people’s cognitive processes, which are the basis of socially determined behavior, that is, behavior is based on human concepts (social attitudes, views, expectations, etc.). A person’s attitude towards an object is determined by its categorical meaning. The main cognitivist thesis: consciousness determines behavior.

Interactionist direction of social psychology is based on the problem of interaction between people in a social group - interactions, based on the social roles of group members. The very concept of " social role» entered George Herbert Mead(George Herbert Mead, sociologist and philosopher, USA) in the 1930s.

Representatives of interactionism Shibutani Tamotsu(Tamotsu Shibutani, sociologist, USA), Arnold Marshall Rose(Arnold Marshall Rose, sociologist and political scientist, USA), Munford Kuhn(Manford H. Kuhn, sociologist, leader of symbolic interactionism, USA) and others attached paramount importance to such socio-psychological problems as communication, reference groups, communication, social role, social norms, social status, etc. Developed by Herbert Mead and other representatives interactionism conceptual apparatus is widely widespread in socio-psychological science.

Interactionism recognizes the social conditioning of the human psyche as the basis of communication. A number of empirical studies conducted by representatives of interactionism have recorded similar behavioral manifestations in similar social situations. However, social interaction is considered by interactionists without specifics in the content of the process of this interaction.

The problem of social psychology of the USSR and Russia

Research in the field of social psychology in the 1920s was based on biopsychological positions, which was contrary to the ideology of the country. As a result, works in the field of social psychology and many other branches of psychology were prohibited, as they were perceived as an alternative to Marxism. In Russia, the development of social psychology began only in the late 1950s. As a result of this “freeze” in the development of social psychology, a single categorical specificity has not been formed, research is conducted at the level of empirics and description, but despite these difficulties, Russian social psychology has scientific data and applies them in various areas of human activity.

Books on social psychology

3. Object and subject of social psychology.

Social psychology is a science that studies the mechanisms and patterns of behavior and activity of people, determined by their inclusion in social groups and communities, as well as the psychological characteristics of these groups and communities

Subject and object of social psychology. Three main approaches have emerged on the subject of social psychology. According to the first of them The subject of social psychology is mass mental phenomena. This approach is being developed by sociologists; it studies: the psychology of classes, large social communities, various aspects of the social psychology of groups (traditions, mores, customs).

According to the second approach, the subject of social psychology is personality. This approach has become widespread among psychologists. Within the framework of this approach, the question of in what context to study personality is discussed. It is possible to analyze a personality from the point of view of its position in the group; consideration of personality in the context of interpersonal relationships or in the communication system.

The third approach represents an attempt to synthesize the first two. Social psychology is considered as a science that studies both mass mental processes and the position of the individual in the group. It should be noted that this understanding of the subject of social psychology is most consistent with the actual practice of research.

Currently, the most generally accepted definition of the subject of social psychology is the following: the study of patterns of behavior and activity of people determined by their inclusion in social groups, as well as the study of the psychological characteristics of these groups themselves.

The object of study of social psychology can be: an individual, a social group (both small, consisting of two or three people, and large, including representatives of the entire ethnic group). In addition, the object of social psychology includes the study of the development processes of the individual and a specific group, the processes of interpersonal and intergroup interaction.

Social psychology is a branch of psychological science that studies the patterns of emergence and functioning of psychological phenomena, the existence of which is determined by the interaction of people in society and their inclusion in various social groups.

The object of social psychology is specific social communities (groups of people) and their individual representatives. Its subject is the patterns of emergence and functioning of socio-psychological phenomena and processes that are the result of the interaction of people as representatives of various social communities.

In large groups – ethnic groups (nations), classes, religious denominations, political and public organizations – specific socio-psychological phenomena operate, which have received the general names “psychology of the nation”, “class psychology”, “religious psychology”, “psychology of politics”. They are distinguished by complex content, ambiguously interpreted by many scientists, and various forms of manifestation. They are studied by the relevant branches of social psychology: ethnic psychology, class psychology, psychology of religion, political psychology.

In small groups functioning mainly of such socio-psychological phenomena as interpersonal relationships, group aspirations, moods, opinions and traditions. It is in small groups that direct and close contacts are made between all the people who make them up. While in large groups such comprehensive contacts between all their members are impossible. The branch of social psychology that studies socio-psychological phenomena and processes in small groups is called small group psychology.