Comparative characteristics of altitudinal zones. Altitudinal zonality in the mountains. Environmental degradation

Altitudinal zonation is a natural change in natural conditions and landscapes in the mountains as the absolute height (altitude above sea level) increases.
Altitudinal belt is a unit of altitudinal-zonal division of landscapes in the mountains. The altitudinal belt forms a strip, relatively homogeneous in natural conditions, often intermittent.

The attention of naturalists and geographers has long been attracted by the change in soils and vegetation as one ascends the mountains. The first to draw attention to this as a universal pattern was the German naturalist A. Humboldt (19th century).

Unlike the plains, the mountains have both vegetation and animal world 2-5 times richer in species. The number of altitudinal zones in the mountains depends on the height of the mountains and their geographical location.

The change of natural zones in the mountains is often compared to movement across the plain in the direction from south to north. But in the mountains, the change in natural zones occurs more sharply and contrastingly and is felt over relatively short distances. Largest number altitudinal zones can be observed in mountains located in the tropics, the smallest - in mountains of the same height as in the Arctic Circle.

The nature of the altitudinal zone changes depending on the exposure of the slope, as well as as the mountains move away from the ocean. In the mountains located near the sea coasts, mountain-forest landscapes predominate. For the mountains in central regions The mainland is characterized by treeless landscapes.

Each high-altitude landscape belt surrounds mountains on all sides, but the system of tiers on opposite slopes of the ridges can differ dramatically.
Only at the mountain foothills are conditions close to typical for the neighboring plains. Above them are “floors” with a harsher nature. Above all is the tier of eternal snow and ice. The higher you go, the colder it gets.

But there are exceptions. There are areas in Siberia where the climate at the foothills is harsher than on the higher slopes.
This is due to the stagnation of cold air at the bottom of intermountain basins.
The further south the mountains are, the greater the range of altitude zones. This is very clearly seen in the example of the Urals. In the south of the Urals, where the altitudes are lower than in the Northern and Polar Urals, there are many altitudinal belts, but in the north there is only one mountain-tundra belt.
The altitudinal belts on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus change very contrastingly. In less than an hour, a car can take travelers from the subtropics to the coast to subalpine meadows.

The formation of types of altitudinal zonation of mountain systems is determined by the following factors:

Geographical location of the mountain system. The number of mountain altitudinal belts in each mountain system and their altitudinal position are mainly determined by the latitude of the place and the position of the territory in relation to the seas and oceans. As you move from north to south, the altitudinal position of natural belts in the mountains and their composition gradually increase. For example, in the Northern Urals, forests rise along the slopes to a height of 700-800 m, in the Southern Urals - up to 1000-1100 m, and in the Caucasus - up to 1800-2000 m. The lowest belt in the mountain system is a continuation of the latitudinal zone that is located at footstools

The absolute height of the mountain system. The higher the mountains rise and the closer they are to the equator, the greater the number of altitude zones they have. Therefore, each mountain system develops its own set of altitude zones.

Relief. The relief of mountain systems (orographic pattern, degree of dissection and evenness) determines the distribution of snow cover, moisture conditions, preservation or removal of weathering products, affects the development of soil and vegetation cover and thereby determines diversity natural complexes in the mountains. For example, the development of leveling surfaces contributes to an increase in the areas of altitudinal belts and the formation of more homogeneous natural complexes.

Climate. This is one of the most important factors shaping altitudinal zonation. As you rise into the mountains, temperature, humidity, solar radiation, wind direction and strength, and weather types change. Climate determines the nature and distribution of soils, vegetation, fauna, etc., and, consequently, the diversity of natural complexes.

Slope exposure. It plays a significant role in the distribution of heat, moisture, wind activity, and, consequently, weathering processes and the distribution of soil and vegetation cover. On the northern slopes of each mountain system, altitude zones are usually located lower than on the southern slopes.

The position, changes in boundaries and natural appearance of altitudinal zones are also influenced by human economic activity.

Already in the Neogene, on the plains of Russia there were latitudinal zones almost similar to modern ones, but due to the warmer climate, zones of arctic deserts and tundras were absent. In Neogene-Quaternary times, significant changes in natural zones occur. This was caused by active and differentiated neotectonic movements, climate cooling and the appearance of glaciers on the plains and mountains. Therefore, natural zones shifted to the south, the composition of their flora (increased deciduous boreal and cold-resistant flora of modern coniferous forests) and fauna changed, the youngest zones were formed - tundra and arctic desert, and in the mountains - alpine, mountain-tundra and nival-glacial belts.

During the warmer Mikulino interglacial (between the Moscow and Valdai glaciations), natural zones shifted to the north, and altitudinal zones occupied higher levels. At this time, the structure of modern natural zones and altitudinal zones is formed. But due to climate change in the late Pleistocene and Holocene, the boundaries of zones and belts shifted several times. This is confirmed by numerous relict botanical and soil finds, as well as spore-pollen analyzes of Quaternary deposits.

The set of altitudinal belts of a macroslope (slope) of a mountainous country or a specific slope of a separate ridge is usually called a set or spectrum of belts. In each spectrum, the basic landscape is the foothills of the mountains, close to the conditions of the horizontal natural zone in which the given mountainous country is located. The combination of numerous factors influencing the structure of altitudinal zonation causes complex differentiation of the types of altitudinal spectra. Even within one zone, altitudinal spectra are often heterogeneous; for example, they become richer as the height of the mountains increases.

The structure of the altitudinal zonation of landscapes can be complete or cut off. The cut structure is observed in two cases: with low mountain heights, as a result of which the upper landscape belts characteristic of this type of altitudinal zone fall out (Mountain Crimea, Middle Urals, etc.), and in highly elevated highlands, in which even river valleys lie on high altitude, as a result of which the lower landscape belts included in the this type altitudinal zone (Eastern Pamir, Central Tien Shan and some other areas).

History of the formation of the altitudinal zonation of Russia

Formation of altitudinal zonation on the modern territory Russian Federation originates in the early Pleistocene, during the interglacial period (Valdai and Moscow glaciations). Due to repeated climatic transformations, the boundaries of altitudinal zones shifted several times. Scientists have proven that all modern mountain systems in Russia were originally located approximately 6° above their current position.

The altitudinal zonation of Russia led to the formation of mountain complexes - the Urals and the mountains of the south and east of the state (Caucasus, Altai, Baikal mountain ranges, Sayans). The Ural Mountains have the status of the most ancient mountain system in the world; their formation supposedly began in the Archean period. The mountain systems of the south are much younger, but due to the fact that they are closer to the equator, they significantly predominate in terms of height.

Mount Klyuchevskaya Sopka in Kamchatka

I already wrote that I don’t like mountains. But there is one exception - mountain forests. I would love to go to these magical places to live and experience Zen.

These are places with unique nature and atmosphere. Other mountain belts too, but they are no longer very comfortable for me.

What are the natural belts?

Natural zones are territories with established characteristics of climate, topography and wildlife. Most often they talk about latitudinal belts that cover the Earth from south to north and vice versa.

But there are also high-altitude zones. In them, zones change as the altitude of the area increases, and not as they move away or approach the equator, as is the case with latitudinal zones.

Main altitude zones (from upper to lower):

• nival;
• subnival;
• Alpine;
• subalpine;
• mountain forest;
• desert-steppe.

But this is only a general typology. Not all types of belts may be present within one mountain system, and the characteristics of each specific belt are influenced by many factors that are not always obvious.

How the altitudinal zone is “constructed”

At the base of the mountains there are most often mountain-forest or desert-steppe belts. The first is typical for humid areas, the second for dry areas.

Higher up, these belts give way to alpine and subalpine. There are fewer trees here and meadows predominate. The temperature drops with increasing altitude, so this zone is cooler than the lower ones.

As a lazy and heat-loving person, I am happy to “give” these belts to climbers and mountain goats.

Thus, the set of altitudinal zones depends to the greatest extent on the latitude of the area and the height of the mountain system. But these are not all the factors.

The level of solar radiation and moisture are related not only to height and latitude, but also to the location of the mountain slopes and their relief. The climate is also influenced by the proximity or distance of mountains from the sea or ocean. Man also plays a role, and through his activities he often disrupts and modifies established natural complexes.

How do air temperature and atmospheric pressure change with altitude?

With altitude, the air temperature drops and atmospheric pressure decreases.

How does the sequence of zones in the mountains change?

The sequence of natural zones in the mountains is the same as on the plains. The first (lower) altitudinal belt of mountains always corresponds to the natural zone in which the mountain is located. So, if the mountain is located in the taiga zone, then when climbing to its peak you will find the following altitude zones: taiga, mountain tundra, eternal snow. If you have to climb the Andes near the equator, then you will start your journey from the belt (zone) equatorial forests. The pattern is this: the higher the mountains and the closer they are to the equator, the more altitude zones there are and the more diverse they are. In contrast to zonality on the plains, the alternation of natural zones in the mountains is called altitudinal zonation or altitudinal zonation.

Where do mountain desert and forest landscapes prevail?

The mountain-desert landscape is characteristic of the Taimyr Peninsula and the Arctic islands.

Mountain forest landscapes are typical for Transbaikalia, Southern Siberia, Altai, and Sikhote-Alin.

Where in Russia are altitudinal zones most fully represented?

In the mountains located near the sea coasts, mountain-forest landscapes predominate. Treeless landscapes are typical for the mountains in the central regions of the continent. The most complete mountain belts are represented in the North Caucasus.

questions and assignments

1. What is altitudinal zonation?

Altitudinal zonation is a natural change natural conditions, natural areas, landscapes in the mountains.

2. Do you think altitudinal zonation is a deviation from the norm or a confirmation of the law of latitudinal zonation?

Altitudinal zonation rather confirms the laws of latitudinal zonation, since in the mountains the change of natural zones is also the result of changing climatic conditions.

3. Why does the change in natural conditions in the mountains occur vertically and manifest itself more sharply than on the plains?

The change in natural zones in the mountains occurs more sharply, since pressure, temperature, and humidity change more sharply with altitude.

4. What altitude zones predominate in the Russian mountains? What areas of the world can they be compared to?

The northern regions are dominated by high-altitude zones of coniferous forests and tundras, and mountain deserts. They are similar to the mountains of Alaska and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.

In the southern and central regions of the country, mountain-steppe and mountain-desert landscapes are expressed, which are also characteristic of other mountains of Central Asia.

5. What determines the set of altitude zones?

The set of altitude zones depends on the latitude of the area in which the mountains are located and the height of the mountains.

6. If in the north of the Russian Plain there were mountains higher than the Caucasus, would they be richer in the number of altitudinal zones?

The mountains in the north of the Russian Plain would not be richer in the number of altitudinal zones of the Caucasus. The Caucasus is further south. And the further south the mountains are, the greater the number of altitude zones.

7. How do mountains affect human life and health?

Life in the mountains affects human health. In mountain conditions, with less oxygen, many body systems change. The work of the chest and lungs increases, the person begins to breathe more often, and accordingly the ventilation of the lungs and the delivery of oxygen to the blood improves. The heart rate increases, which increases blood circulation and oxygen reaches the tissues faster. This is also facilitated by the release of new red blood cells into the blood, and therefore the hemoglobin they contain. This explains the beneficial effect of mountain air on a person’s vitality. Coming to mountain resorts, many notice that their mood improves and their vitality is activated. Especially if a vacation in the mountains is combined with a vacation at sea. However, it should be noted that a resident of the plains will feel unwell with a rapid ascent already at an altitude of 3000 m. He will be tormented by altitude sickness.

Living in the mountains also has its downsides. Firstly, mountain residents will receive more ultraviolet radiation, which has a negative impact on health. There are difficulties in driving in the mountains economic activity, construction of housing and roads. Often, transport connections may be absent for one reason or another. In the mountains there is a higher probability of natural phenomena occurring.

ALTITUDE ZONE (altitudinal zonality, vertical zonality), the main geographical pattern of changes in natural conditions and landscapes with altitude in the mountains. It is caused mainly by changes in the conditions of heat supply and humidification with increasing absolute altitude. The reasons, intensity and direction of these changes differ significantly from the corresponding changes in geographic latitude. When decreasing atmospheric pressure With height, due to a decrease in air density, a decrease in the content of water vapor and dust in it, the intensity of direct solar radiation increases, but its own radiation earth's surface intensifies faster, as a result of which there is a sharp decrease in air temperature with height (on average 0.5-0.65 ° C for every 100 m of rise). Due to the barrier effect of mountains, precipitation increases up to a certain altitude (usually higher in dry areas) and then decreases. The rapid change in climatic conditions with altitude corresponds to a change in soils, vegetation, runoff conditions, the set and intensity of modern exogenous processes, relief forms and, in general, the entire natural complex. This leads to the formation of high-altitude zones, distinguished by the predominant type of landscape (mountain forest, mountain steppe). Within them, according to the dominance of a certain subtype of landscape, altitudinal belts, or altitudinal subzones, are distinguished (for example, belts of mixed, broad-leaved or dark-coniferous forests of the mountain forest zone). High-altitude zones and belts are named according to the type of prevailing vegetation - the most obvious component of landscapes and an indicator of other natural conditions. From latitudinal landscape zones and subzones, high-altitude zones and belts differ in their smaller extent, the manifestation of specific exogenous processes in conditions of highly dissected and steeply sloping terrain that are not characteristic of flat landscapes (landslides, mudflows, avalanches, etc.); gravelly and thin soils, etc. Some high-altitude zones and belts have no plain analogues (for example, a mountain-meadow zone with subnival, alpine and subalpine belts).

M.V. Lomonosov was the first to write about the differences in climate and nature of mountains depending on the proximity of the earth’s surface to the “frozen layer of the atmosphere.” Generalizations of the patterns of altitudinal zonation belong to A. Humboldt, who identified the relationship between climate change and vegetation in the mountains. The doctrine of vertical zonation of soils, as well as climate, flora and fauna as the main soil-forming factors, was created by V.V. Dokuchaev, who pointed out the identity of vertical zonation in the mountains and latitudinal zonation on the plains. Subsequently, in order to emphasize the identified differences in the genesis of altitudinal (vertical) zonality from latitudinal one, in Russian landscape science it was proposed to use the term “altitudinal zonality” (A.G. Isachenko, V.I. Prokaev, etc.), widely used in geobotany and soil science. To avoid confusion in terminology, some Russian physical geographers (N. A. Gvozdetsky, A. M. Ryabchikov, etc.) believe that the pattern of distribution of vegetation with height is better called altitudinal zonation, and in relation to changes in natural complexes the term “altitudinal landscape zonation” should be used. , or “altitudinal zonation”. The term "vertical zoning" is sometimes used in modern geography when characterizing the deep zonality of the nature of the oceans.

The structure of altitudinal zones is characterized by a spectrum (set) of altitudinal zones and belts, their number, sequence of location and loss, vertical width, and altitudinal position of boundaries. The type of altitudinal zonation of landscapes is determined by a natural combination of vertically alternating altitudinal zones and belts, characteristic of territories with a certain zonal-sectoral association (see Zoning). The influence of orographic features of mountain systems (stretch, absolute and relative height of mountains, slope exposure, etc.) is manifested in a variety of spectra, reflecting various subtypes and variants of structures within a specific type of altitudinal zone. The lower altitude zone in a mountain system, as a rule, corresponds to the latitudinal zone in which this system is located. IN southern mountains the structure of altitudinal zones becomes more complex, and the boundaries of the zones shift upward. In the longitudinal sectors of one geographic zone, the structures of altitudinal zonation often differ not in the number of altitudinal zones, but in their internal features: the mountains of the oceanic sectors are characterized by a large vertical width of altitudinal zones, the unclear nature of their boundaries, the formation of transition zones, etc.; in the mountains of continental sectors, zone changes occur more quickly, and the boundaries are usually more clearly defined. In mountains of meridional and submeridional extent, the altitudinal zonation spectra are more clearly manifested latitudinal zonation. In latitudinal and sublatitudinal mountain systems, the influence of longitudinal differentiation on the spectra of altitudinal zonality is more clearly expressed. Such mountain systems also emphasize and enhance zonal contrasts due to exposure effects, often serve as climate divides, and their ridges form boundaries between latitudinal landscape zones and geographic zones. For example, for the Greater Caucasus, various types of altitudinal structure are distinguished, characteristic of the northern and southern slopes in its western and eastern parts (Figure 1).

Depending on the features of the relief, full and shortened spectra of altitudinal zones are distinguished. A simplification of the structure of altitudinal zonation occurs both due to the insignificant height of the ridges (loss of upper zones in low and medium-altitude mountains) and with an increase in the absolute height of the foothills and bottoms of valleys (loss of lower zones). The greatest diversity of altitudinal zones and belts is characterized by low and middle mountains. In the upper tiers, the structure of altitudinal zones is quite homogeneous due to the uniformity of the climate of the peaks. For example, in the Urals, at the intersection of different latitudinal zones, landscapes corresponding to these zones are formed in the lower parts of the slopes, and in the upper parts mountain tundra and char, found both in the north and in the south, predominate (Figure 2). At the same time, the width of the bald zone narrows to the south, and its border rises. Given the large extent of the Urals from north to south (over 2000 km), fluctuations in the boundary of the goltsy zone are insignificant - from 750 m in the north to 1050 m in the south.

The exposure of the slopes is associated with the asymmetry of altitudinal zonation, that is, the difference in spectra on slopes of different insolation (relative to the Sun) and circulation (relative to the direction of movement of moist air masses) exposures. The asymmetry of altitudinal zonation is manifested in an increase in the boundaries of altitudinal zones on the southern slopes and a decrease in the width of individual zones - up to their complete pinching out. For example, on the northern slope of the Western Sayan, the upper boundary of the taiga is located at an altitude of 1300-1350 m, on the southern slope - 1450-1550 m. Exposure differences are more clearly manifested in mountain systems with a continental climate, especially if they are located at the junction of latitudinal landscape zones. Circulation exposure enhances the effect of insolation exposure, which is typical for latitudinal and sublatitudinal ridges. On the other hand, different orientations of slopes in relation to the main transport routes of moisture-bearing air masses lead to the formation of unequal spectra of altitudinal zonation. In the area of ​​western transport of moist air masses, precipitation falls mainly on the western slopes, in the area of ​​monsoon climate - on the eastern. The windward slopes of the ridges are characterized by humid landscapes, while the leeward slopes are characterized by arid ones. In dry climates, exposure contrasts appear brighter, especially in mid-mountains - at altitudes where there is rainfall. maximum amount precipitation.

Inversion of altitudinal zones, that is, the reverse sequence of their change with height, is observed on the slopes framing intermountain basins and large valleys. In areas of heat deficiency and increased moisture, mountain slopes are usually occupied by more southern types of landscapes compared to the bottoms of basins (for example, in the Polar Urals, tundras at the bottoms of basins are replaced by forest-tundras on the slopes). In areas of sufficient heat and lack of moisture, more southern types of landscapes are typical for valleys and basins (for example, in the mountains of Transbaikalia, steppe basins are found among forested lowlands).

The structure of the altitudinal zonation of landscapes is one of the criteria for the physical-geographical zoning of mountainous countries.

Lit.: Dokuchaev V.V. To the doctrine of natural zones. Horizontal and vertical soil zones. St. Petersburg, 1899; Shchukin I. S., Shchukina O. E. Life of the mountains. M., 1959; Ryabchikov A.M. Structure of altitudinal zonation of land landscapes // Bulletin of Moscow State University. Ser. Geography. 1968. No. 6; Stanyukovich K.V. Vegetation of the mountains of the USSR. Shower, 1973; Grebenshchikov O.S. On the zonality of vegetation cover in the mountains of the Mediterranean in the latitudinal band of 35-40 degrees latitude // Problems of botany. L., 1974. T. 12; Gorchakovsky P. L. Vegetable world high mountain Urals. M., 1975; Gvozdetskikh N. A., Golubchikov Yu. N. Mountains. M., 1987; Isachenko A. G. Landscape science and physical-geographical zoning. M., 1991; Avssalamova I. A., Petrushina M. N., Khoroshev A. V. Mountain landscapes: structure and dynamics. M., 2002.

Areas of altitudinal zonality or altitudinal zonality characterize natural stratification at different altitudes due to differences in conditions environment. Temperature, humidity, soil composition and solar radiation are important factors in determining altitudinal zones, which therefore support different kinds plants and animals. Altitudinal zonation was first proposed by geographer Alexander von Humboldt, who observed that temperature decreases with increasing altitude. Zoning also occurs in intertidal and marine environments, as well as on shorelines and marshes. Currently, altitudinal zonation is a basic concept in mining research.

Factors

A variety of environmental factors determine the boundaries of altitudinal zones (belts) in mountains: from the direct effects of temperature and precipitation to indirect characteristics of the mountain itself, as well as biological interactions of species. The reason for zoning is complex due to many possible interactions and overlapping species.

The soil

The nutrient content of soils at different altitudes further complicates the delineation of altitudinal zones. Soils with higher nutrient content, due to more high speeds decomposition or greater weathering of rocks, better support the growth of large trees and vegetation. The height of the best soils depends on the specific mountain. For example, for mountains located in regions, lower elevations show less diversity of terrestrial species due to the thick layer of dead leaf litter covering the forest floor. Acidic, humic soils are common in these areas and exist at higher elevations at the mountain or subalpine level. In another example, weathering is prevented by low temperatures at higher elevations in the Rocky Mountains of the western United States, resulting in thin, coarse soils.

Climate:

Temperature

A decrease in air temperature usually coincides with an increase in altitude, which directly affects the length of the growing season in different zones. For mountains located in deserts, extremely high temperatures also limit the ability of large deciduous or coniferous trees to grow near the base of the mountains. In addition, plants may be particularly sensitive to soil temperature and are able to have specific elevation ranges that support their healthy growth.

Humidity

The humidity of certain zones, including precipitation levels, air humidity and evapotranspiration, changes with increasing altitude and is an important factor in determining altitudinal zones. The most important variable is deposition at different altitudes. As warm, moist air rises up the windward side of a mountain, the air's temperature and ability to hold moisture decreases. Thus, the highest rainfall is expected at mid-elevations, allowing deciduous forests to grow. Above a certain altitude, the rising air becomes too dry and cold, and thus inhibits the growth of trees. Although precipitation may not be a significant factor for some mountains, air humidity or aridity is sometimes more important than climatic conditions that affect altitudinal zones. General level precipitation affects soil moisture.

Flora and fauna

In addition to physical forces, biological forces can also create zoning. For example, a strong competitor may force a weaker competitor to move higher or lower. There is evidence that competing dominant plants can take over preferred sites (i.e. warmer sites or more fertile soils). Two other biological factors are also capable of influencing zonation: grazing and crosstalk, as the abundance of grazing animals and mycorrhizal associations suggest that they significantly influence the distribution of flora.

Solar radiation

Light is another important factor in the growth of trees and other photosynthetic vegetation. The Earth's atmosphere is filled with water vapor, particulate matter and gases that filter the radiation coming from the Sun to the Earth's surface. Consequently, mountain peaks and hills receive much more intense radiation than plains. Along with dry conditions, at higher elevations, shrubs and grasses tend to grow well due to their small leaves and extensive root systems. However, high altitudes also experience frequent cloud cover, which reduces high-intensity radiation.

Physical Features

The physical characteristics and relative location of the mountain itself must also be considered when predicting altitudinal zonation patterns. This factor explains that the zonation of rain forests on the lower parts of the mountains may reflect the zonation expected on high mountains, but the belts occur at lower altitudes.

Other factors

In addition to the factors described above, there are a number of other features that can affect altitudinal zonation. These include: frequency of damage (such as fire or monsoons), wind speed, rock type, topography, proximity to streams or rivers, history of tectonic activity, and latitude.

What are the altitude zones?

The identification of altitudinal zones is complicated by the factors described above, and, therefore, the relative heights of each zone begin and end without reference to a specific height. However, it is possible to divide the altitudinal gradient into five main zones used by ecologists under different names. In some cases, these levels follow each other with decreasing heights.

Nival belt (glaciers)

This belt of eternal snow and glaciers is the highest altitude zone in the mountains. It is located above the snow line and is covered with snow for most of the year. Vegetation is extremely limited, with only a few species present that grow on silica soils. Below it borders with the Alpine belt. The biotemperature of the nival belt does not exceed 1.5 ° C.

Plants and animals

Small areas where there is no snow are subject to increased frost weathering, which causes the presence of stones and rubble. In such conditions algae, lichens and some flowering plants grow. Some insects and birds can also be found in this area.

Alpine belt

This is a zone that extends between the subalpine belt in the south and the nival zone in the north. The Alpine belt is characterized by a significant degree of solar radiation, negative average annual temperatures, strong winds and stable snow cover. It includes alpine meadows and. The biotemperature of the belt is between 1.5 and 3° C.

Plants and animals

The plants have adapted to the harsh alpine environment and are very hardy, but in some respects the ecosystem is quite fragile. The disappearance of tundra plants leads to weathering of the soil and its restoration can take hundreds of years.

Alpine meadows form where precipitation caused by rock weathering creates sufficiently well-developed soils to support grasses and sedges. Alpines are quite common throughout the world, and the World Wildlife Fund has classified them as.

Animals that are found in the alpine zone can be either permanent inhabitants of this zone (hay farmer, field mouse, marmot) or temporary (argali, chamois antelope).

Subalpine belt

The subalpine zone is a biotic zone (zone of life) located below the alpine belt and the forest boundary. The exact level of the forest boundary varies depending on local climate. In tropical areas South-East Asia the tree line can be above 4000 m, while in Scotland it does not exceed 450 m. The biotemperature of the subalpine zone is between 3-6 ° C.

Plants and animals

Trees in the subalpine zone are often stunted and have a twisted shape. Tree seedlings can germinate on the leeward (sheltered) side of rocks and grow protected from the wind. Snow cover protects trees in winter, but unprotected branches from the wind usually collapse. Well-adapted trees can reach ages ranging from several hundred to a thousand years.

A typical subalpine forest includes silver fir (subalpine fir), Engelmann spruce, and other conifer species. The subalpine flora is also characterized by the presence of plants from the grass family, forbs and tall grasses.

Due to difficult climatic conditions and lack of food, the fauna in this zone is not diverse enough. However, in the subalpine zone there are representatives, bears, hares, martens and squirrels, as well as some species of birds.

Mountain belt

The mountain belt is located between the foothill and subalpine zones. The altitude at which one habitat passes into another varies differently in different parts of the globe, especially with latitude. Upper limit mountain forests are often characterized by hardier vegetation species that occur in less dense stands. For example, in the Sierra Nevada, California, the montane forest contains dense dendritic pines and red fir, while the subalpine zone of the Sierra Nevada contains rare whitebark pines.

The lower limit of a mountain zone may be the "lower timber line" that separates the mountain forest from the drier steppe or desert area.

Mountain forests are different from lowland forests in the same area. The climate of montane forests is colder than lowland climates at the same latitude, so montane forests often contain species typical of high-latitude lowland forests.

Temperate climate

Mountain forests located in temperate climates are usually coniferous or broad-leaved and mixed forests. They are well known in northern Europe, northern United States and southern Canada. The trees, however, are often not identical to those further north: geology and climate give rise to different related species in montane forests.

Mountain forests around the world tend to be richer in species than those in Europe because major European mountain ranges blocked species migration during the last Ice Age.

Mountain forests are found in the temperate climate of Europe (Alps, Carpathians, Caucasus, etc.), North America(Cascade Mountains, Klamath Mountain Range, Appalachians, etc.), in the southwest South America, New Zealand and the Himalayas.

Mediterranean climate

These forests are typically mixed coniferous and broadleaf forests with several conifer species. Pine and juniper are typical trees found in Mediterranean mountain forests. Broadleaf trees are more varied and are often evergreen, such as the evergreen oak.

This type of forest is found in the Mediterranean basin, North Africa, Mexico and the southwestern United States, Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan.

Subtropical and tropical climate

In the tropics, montane forests may consist of broadleaf forests in addition to conifers. One example of a tropical montane forest is a cloud forest, which gets its moisture from clouds and fog. Cloud forests often have an abundance of mosses covering the ground and vegetation, in which case they are also called mossy forests. Depending on latitude, the lower limit of montane rainforests on large mountains is usually between 1500 and 2500 metres, while the upper limit is between 2400 and 3300 metres.

Foothills

This is the lowest section of the mountains, which clearly varies in climate and is characterized by a wide range of names depending on the surrounding landscape. Such low-lying belts are found in tropical and desert areas.

Tropics

Characterized by deciduous forests in oceanic or temperate continental regions and grasslands in more continental regions. They extend from sea level to approximately 900 m. The vegetation is abundant and dense. This zone is the typical base layer of tropical regions.

Deserts

Characterized by open evergreen oak and other forests, most common in desert areas. There is a limitation of evaporation and soil moisture. Very common in the Southwestern United States.

desert grasslands

Desert grasslands are located below the desert belt and are characterized by varying densities of low-lying vegetation. These areas cannot support tree growth due to extreme aridity. Some desert areas are able to support the growth of trees at the foot of the mountains, and thus do not develop distinct grassland zones in these areas.

Distribution of animals depending on altitudinal zones

Animals also demonstrate zonation depending on altitudinal zones. more clearly defined in the belts because they are usually less mobile than vertebrates. animals often move through high altitude zones depending on the season and the availability of food. Typically, the diversity and abundance of animal species decrease with increasing mountain heights due to harsher environmental conditions. It is difficult to study in detail the distribution of animals depending on altitudinal zones, since representatives of the fauna tend to frequently change their habitats.

Altitudinal zonation and human activity:

Agriculture

Human populations have developed agricultural production strategies to exploit various features high altitude zones. Altitude, climate and soil fertility determine the crops that can be grown in each zone. Population groups living in the mountainous Andean region of South America took advantage of the distinctive high-altitude conditions to grow a wide variety of crops.

Environmental degradation

Population growth is leading to environmental degradation in high-altitude environments through deforestation and overgrazing. Increasing accessibility to mountainous regions allows more people to travel between belts and use the land for commercial purposes. In addition, improved road access has contributed to environmental degradation.