Average and maximum salinity of the Pacific Ocean. Physical geography - the seas washing the territory of Russia. The saltiest sea

Pacific Ocean It is considered the warmest of the Earth's oceans. Its average annual temperature surface waters is 19.1°C (1.8°C above the temperature Atlantic Ocean and by 1.5°C - Indian Ocean). This is explained by the huge volume of the water pool - heat storage, large area water areas in the most heated equatorial-tropical regions (more than 50% of the total), isolation of the Pacific Ocean from the cold Arctic basin. The influence of Antarctica in the Pacific Ocean is also weaker compared to the Atlantic and Indian Oceans due to its huge area.

The temperature distribution of surface waters of the Pacific Ocean is determined mainly by heat exchange with the atmosphere and circulation of water masses. In the open ocean, isotherms usually have a latitudinal variation, with the exception of areas with meridional (or submeridional) transport of water by currents. Especially strong deviations from latitudinal zonality in the temperature distribution of surface ocean waters are observed along the western and eastern coasts, where meridional (submeridional) flows close the main circulation circuits of the Pacific Ocean waters.

In equatorial-tropical latitudes, the highest seasonal and annual water temperatures are observed - 25-29 ° C, and their maximum values(31-32°C) belong to the western regions of equatorial latitudes. At low latitudes West Side The ocean is 2-5°C warmer than the eastern one. In the areas of the Californian and Peruvian currents, the water temperature can be 12-15°C lower compared to coastal waters located at the same latitudes in the western part of the ocean. In the temperate and subpolar waters of the Northern Hemisphere, the western sector of the ocean, on the contrary, is 3-7°C colder than the eastern sector throughout the year. In summer, the water temperature in the Bering Strait is 5-6°C. In winter, the zero isotherm passes through the middle part of the Bering Sea. The minimum temperature here is -1.7-1.8°C. In Antarctic waters in areas where floating ice is widespread, the water temperature rarely rises to 2-3°C. In winter, negative temperatures are observed south of 60-62° S. w. In the temperate and subpolar latitudes of the southern part of the ocean, isotherms have a smooth sublatitudinal course; there is no significant difference in water temperatures between the western and eastern parts of the ocean.

Salinity and density

The distribution of salinity in the waters of the Pacific Ocean follows general patterns. In general, this indicator at all depths is lower than in other oceans of the world, which is explained by the size of the ocean and its significant remoteness central parts ocean from the arid regions of the continents (Fig. 4).

The water balance of the ocean is characterized by a significant excess of the amount of atmospheric precipitation together with river runoff over the amount of evaporation. In addition, in the Pacific Ocean, unlike the Atlantic and Indian, at intermediate depths there is no influx of particularly saline waters of the Mediterranean and Red Sea types. The centers for the formation of highly saline waters on the surface of the Pacific Ocean are the subtropical regions of both hemispheres, since evaporation here significantly exceeds the amount of precipitation.

Both high-salinity zones (35.5‰ in the north and 36.5‰ in the south) are located above 20° latitude in both hemispheres. North of 40° N. w. salinity decreases especially quickly. At the top of the Gulf of Alaska it is 30-31 ‰. In the Southern Hemisphere, the decrease in salinity from the subtropics to the south slows down due to the influence of the Western Winds: up to 60° S. w. it remains more than 34%o, and off the coast of Antarctica it decreases to 33%o. Water desalination is also observed in equatorial-tropical regions with large amounts of precipitation. Between the centers of salinization and desalinization of waters, the distribution of salinity is strongly influenced by currents. Along the coast, currents carry desalinated waters from high latitudes to lower latitudes in the east of the ocean, and salty waters in the opposite direction in the west.

Rice. 4.

The most general pattern of changes in water density in the Pacific Ocean is an increase in its values ​​from equatorial-tropical zones to high latitudes. Consequently, the decrease in temperature from the equator to the poles completely covers the decrease in salinity throughout the entire space from the tropics to high latitudes.

How many seas are there on Earth? No one will tell you the exact answer. For example, the International Hydrographic Bureau identifies only 54 seas; some scientists believe that there are more than 90 seas on our planet (not counting the Caspian, Dead and Galilee, which are often classified as lakes). The most common version is that there are 81 seas. This discrepancy arises due to the fact that scientists interpret the very concept of “sea” differently.

The most common interpretation: sea ​​- a body of water separated by parts of land or elevations of underwater relief . From a geological point of view, seas are young formations. The deepest ones formed at the fracture tectonic plates, for example, Mediterranean. Smaller ones are formed on the outskirts of continents when continental shallows are flooded.

Characteristics of the seas

The seas actively participate in creating the temperature regime of the globe. Sea water is very lazy and heats up slowly. Therefore, for example, the water in the Mediterranean Sea becomes warmest not in July, when it is hot, but in September. As the level drops, the water cools quickly. At the bottom of the deepest seas it is about 0ºC. In this case, salt water begins to freeze at a temperature of -1.5 ºC; - 1.9 ºC.

Warm and cold currents move huge masses of water - warm or cold. This greatly influences climate formation.

Ebbs and flows, frequency of their changes and height also play a big role. The occurrence of high and low tides is associated with the changing phases of the Moon.

Known interesting feature water in the sea. When diving, the sea gradually “eats” the colors. At a depth of 6 m, scarlet colors disappear, at a depth of 45 m - orange, 90 m - yellow, at a depth of over 100 m only violet and greenish shades remain. Therefore, the most colorful underwater world is located at shallow depths.

Types of seas

There are several classifications that unite seas according to certain characteristics. Let's look at the most popular ones.

1. Across the oceans(list of seas by ocean)

2. By degree of isolation

Internal - do not have access to the ocean (isolated), or are connected to them through straits (semi-isolated). In fact, isolated seas (Aral, Dead) are considered to be lakes. And the straits connecting semi-isolated seas with the ocean are so narrow that they do not lead to the mixing of deep waters. Example - Baltic, Mediterranean.

Marginal - located on the shelf, have an extensive network of underwater currents and free access to the ocean. They are separated from each other by islands or underwater hills.

Interisland - such seas are surrounded by a close group of islands that prevent connection with the ocean. The largest number of such seas among the islands of the Malay Archipelago are Javanese and Sulawesi.

Intercontinental - seas lying at the junction of continents - Mediterranean, Red.

3. By water salinity There are lightly saline (Black) and highly saline (Red) seas.

4. According to the degree of ruggedness of the coastline There are seas with highly indented and slightly indented coastlines. But, for example, the Sargasso Sea has no coastline at all.

Coastlines are characterized by the presence of bays, estuaries, bays, spits, cliffs, peninsulas, beaches, fjords and capes.

The difference between a sea and a lake, a bay and an ocean

Despite the great similarity in the interpretations of the concepts “sea”, “lake”, “bay” and “ocean”, these words are not synonymous.

So, the sea differs from the lake:

Size. The sea is always bigger.

The degree of water salinity. In the sea, water is always mixed with salt, while in lakes it can be fresh, brackish or salty.

Geographical location. Lakes are always located inside continents and are surrounded on all sides by land. The seas most often have a connection with the ocean.

It is more difficult to separate seas and oceans. It's all about size here. It is generally accepted that the sea is only a part of the ocean that has unique flora and fauna. The sea may differ from the ocean in the degree of salinity of the water and the relief.

The bay is also part of the ocean, deeply cut into the land. Unlike the sea, it always has a free connection with the ocean. In some cases, the name bay is assigned to water areas, which, according to their hydrological characteristics, are more likely to belong to the seas. For example, Hudson Bay, California, Mexico.

The saltiest sea

(Dead Sea)

If we consider the Dead Sea to be a sea, and not a lake, then the palm in terms of the degree of salinity of the waters will belong to this water area. The salt concentration here is 340 g/l. Because of the salt, the density of the water is such that it is impossible to drown in the Dead Sea. By the way, this is why there are no fish or plants in the Dead Sea; only bacteria live in such a salt solution.

Of the recognized seas, the Red Sea is considered the saltiest. 1 liter of water contains 41 g of salt.

In Russia, the saltiest sea is the Barents Sea (34-37g/l).

The largest sea

(Philippine Sea)

The largest sea in the world is the Philippine Sea (5,726 thousand sq. km). Located in the western Pacific Ocean between the islands of Taiwan, Japan and the Philippines. This sea is also the deepest in the world. The greatest depth was recorded in the Mariana Trench - 11022 m. The sea territory covers 4 climatic zones at once: from equatorial to subtropical.

The largest sea in Russia is the Bering Sea (2315 thousand sq. km.)

Includes all the seas and oceans of the Earth. It occupies about 70% of the planet's surface and contains 96% of all water on the planet. The world ocean consists of four oceans: the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian and Arctic.

Sizes of the oceans: Pacific - 179 million km2, Atlantic - 91.6 million km2, Indian - 76.2 million km2, Arctic - 14.75 million km2

The boundaries between oceans, as well as the boundaries of seas within oceans, are drawn rather arbitrarily. They are determined by land areas delimiting the water space, internal currents, differences in temperature and salinity.

Seas are divided into internal and marginal. Inland seas protrude quite deeply into the land (for example, the Mediterranean), and marginal seas adjoin the land with one edge (for example, the Northern, Japanese).

Pacific Ocean

The Pacific is the largest of the oceans. It is located in both the northern and southern hemispheres. In the east, its border is the coast of North and, in the west - the coast of and, in the south - Antarctica. It owns 20 seas and more than 10,000 islands.

As the Pacific Ocean covers all but the coldest,

it has a diverse climate. over the ocean varies from +30°

to -60° C. Trade winds form in the tropical zone; monsoons are frequent to the north, off the coast of Asia and Russia.

The main currents of the Pacific Ocean are closed in circles. In the northern hemisphere, the circle is formed by the Northern Trade Wind, North Pacific and California Currents, which are directed clockwise. In the southern hemisphere, the circle of currents is directed counterclockwise and consists of the Southern Trade Wind, East Australian, Peruvian and Western Winds.

The Pacific Ocean is located on the Pacific Ocean. Its bottom is heterogeneous; there are underground plains, mountains and ridges. On the territory of the ocean is the Mariana Trench - the deepest point of the World Ocean, its depth is 11 km 22 m.

The water temperature in the Atlantic Ocean ranges from -1 °C to + 26 °C, the average water temperature is +16 °C.

The average salinity of the Atlantic Ocean is 35%.

The organic world of the Atlantic Ocean is distinguished by a wealth of green plants and plankton.

Indian Ocean

Most of the Indian Ocean is located in warm latitudes and is dominated by humid monsoons, which determine the climate of East Asian countries. The southern edge of the Indian Ocean is sharply cold.

Indian Ocean currents change direction depending on the direction of the monsoons. The most significant currents are the Monsoon, Trade Wind and.

The Indian Ocean is different varied relief, there are several ridges, between which there are relatively deep basins. The deepest point of the Indian Ocean is the Java Trench, 7 km 709 m.

The water temperature in the Indian Ocean ranges from -1°C off the coast of Antarctica to +30°C near the equator, the average water temperature is +18°C.

The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is 35%.

Arctic Ocean

Much of the Arctic Ocean is covered in thick ice—almost 90% of the ocean surface in winter. Only near the coast does the ice freeze to the land, while most of the ice drifts. Drifting ice is called "pack".

The ocean is located entirely in northern latitudes and has a cold climate.

A number of large currents are observed in the Arctic Ocean: the Trans-Arctic Current runs along the north of Russia, and as a result of interaction with the warmer waters of the Atlantic Ocean, the Norwegian Current is born.

The relief of the Arctic Ocean is characterized by a developed shelf, especially off the coast of Eurasia.

The water under the ice always has a negative temperature: -1.5 - -1°C. In summer, the water in the seas of the Arctic Ocean reaches +5 - +7 °C. The salinity of ocean water decreases significantly in summer due to the melting of ice and, this applies to the Eurasian part of the ocean, deep Siberian rivers. So in winter the salinity in different parts is 31-34% o, in summer off the coast of Siberia it can be up to 20% o.

1. Seas of the Arctic Ocean.

2. Seas of the Pacific Ocean.

3. Seas of the Atlantic Ocean

4. Caspian Sea-lake.

Seas of the Arctic Ocean

The seas of the Arctic Ocean include: the Barents Sea, the White Sea, the Kara Sea, the Laptev Sea, the East Siberian Sea and the Chukchi Sea.

All these seas wash the territory of Russia from the north. All seas, except the White Sea, are marginal, and the White Sea is internal. The seas are separated from each other by archipelagos of islands - natural boundaries, and where there is no clear boundary between the seas, it is drawn conditionally. All seas are shelf seas and therefore shallow, only the northern waters of the Laptev Sea extend to the edge of the Nansen Basin (depth 3385 m). Thus, the Laptev Sea is the deepest of northern seas. The second deepest of the northern seas is the Barents Sea, and the shallowest is the East Siberian Sea, the average depth of all seas is 185 m.

The seas are open, and there is a free exchange of water between them and the ocean. From the Atlantic, warm and salty waters flow into the Barents Sea in two powerful streams: the Spitsbergen and North Cape currents. In the east, the Arctic Ocean basin is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the narrow Bering Strait (its width is 86 km, depth 42 m), so water exchange with the Pacific Ocean is noticeably difficult.

The seas of the Arctic Ocean are characterized by large runoff from the mainland; about 70% of the runoff of the Russian territory belongs to the basin of this ocean. Inflow river waters reduces sea salinity to 32‰. Near the mouths of large rivers, salinity drops to 5‰, and only in the north-west of the Barents Sea does it approach 35‰.

The climate of the seas is harsh, which is primarily due to their geographical location V high latitudes. All seas, except the White Sea, lie in the Arctic. This fact causes them to become very cold in winter, during the polar night. In the eastern part, the Arctic pressure maximum is formed, which maintains frosty, partly cloudy weather in winter. The Icelandic and Aleutian lows have a certain influence on the climate of the northern seas. For western regions The Arctic in winter is characterized by cyclonic activity, which is especially pronounced in the Barents Sea: frosts soften, the weather is cloudy, windy, with snowfalls, and fog is possible. An anticyclone dominates over the central and eastern seas, so average January temperatures change as follows (in the direction from west to east): over the Barents Sea in January temperatures are -5o -15oC, and in the Laptev Sea and East Siberian Sea the average January temperature is about -30oC . Over the Chukchi Sea it is a little warmer - about -25°C, this is influenced by the Aleutian minimum. Near North Pole in January the temperature is around -40°C. Summer is characterized by continuous solar radiation during the long polar day.

Cyclonic activity weakens somewhat in summer, but air temperatures remain quite low, because... The bulk of solar radiation is spent on melting ice. Average July temperatures vary from 0°C on the northern edge of the seas to +5°C on the coast of the continent, and only over the water area White Sea in summer the temperature is up to +10°C.

In winter, all seas, with the exception of the western edge of the Barents Sea, freeze. Most of the ocean is covered with ice all year round; this ice remains for several years and is called pack ice. Ice is in constant motion. Despite its considerable thickness (up to 3 m or more), the ice is subject to fractures, and cracks and even polynyas form between the ice floes. The surface of the pack ice is relatively flat, but in some places hummocks up to 5-10 m high can appear. In addition to ice, icebergs that have broken off from the cover glaciers that are present on the Arctic islands can be found in the seas. In summer, the ice area decreases, but even in August, drifting ice floes can be seen in the seas off the coast. The ice regime changes annually; now, with climate warming, there is an improvement in ice conditions (for sea vessels). The water temperature remains low all year round: in summer +1o +5o (in the White Sea up to +10o), in winter -1-2oC (and only in the western part of the Barents Sea about +4oC).

The bioproductivity of the northern seas is low, the flora and fauna of these seas are relatively poor, and the depletion of flora and fauna occurs in the direction from west to east, due to the severity of the climate. Thus, the ichthyofauna of the Barents Sea includes 114 species of fish, and 37 species live in the Laptev Sea. The Barents Sea is inhabited by: cod, haddock, halibut, sea bass, herring, etc. The eastern seas are dominated by salmon (nelma, pink salmon, chum salmon, salmon), whitefish (omul, vendace) and smelt.

Pacific Seas

The seas of the Pacific Ocean include: the Bering Sea, the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, and the Sea of ​​Japan. They wash the eastern shores of Russia. The seas are separated from the Pacific Ocean by ridges of islands: the Aleutian, Kuril and Japanese, behind which there are deep-sea trenches (the maximum depth at the Kuril-Kamchatka trench is 9717 m). The seas are located in the subduction zone of two lithospheric plates: Eurasian and Pacific. The seas are also in the continental transition zone earth's crust to the oceanic, the shelf is small, so the seas of the Pacific Ocean are significantly deep. The deepest (4150 m) and largest in size is the Bering Sea. On average, the depth of all three seas is 1350 m, which is much deeper than the seas of the Arctic Ocean. The seas stretch for almost 5,000 km from north to south, while they have free water exchange with the Pacific Ocean. A distinctive feature of these seas is the relatively small influx of river water into them. Less than 20% of the water flow from the territory of Russia belongs to the Pacific Ocean basin.

The climate of the seas is largely determined by the monsoon circulation, which smoothes out the climatic differences of the seas, especially in winter. average temperature air in January varies from -15-20o C near the coast and to -5o C near the island arcs. The harshest winter is in the Sea of ​​Okhotsk (500 km from Oymyakon). In summer, the climatic differences between the seas are more noticeable. In the Bering Sea, the average temperature in summer is +7 +10° C, and in the Sea of ​​Japan the temperature reaches +20° C. In the summer season, typhoons often sweep over the Sea of ​​Japan. In winter, ice forms in the seas: the Sea of ​​Okhotsk freezes completely, and the Bering and Japanese Seas freeze only near the coasts. In winter, the water temperature ranges from +2оС to -2оС, and in summer the water temperature varies from +5оС in the north to +17оС in the south. Water salinity varies from 30‰ in the Sea of ​​Okhotsk to 33‰ in the Bering and Sea of ​​Japan.

The seas of the Pacific Ocean are characterized by tidal currents; in Penzhinskaya Bay the highest tidal waves are observed off the coast of Russia - up to 13 m; near the Kuril Islands the height of tidal waves is up to 5 m.

The organic world of the seas is quite rich; plankton and seaweed grow abundantly in shallow waters. The ichthyofauna is represented by arctic and boreal fish species, and in the Sea of ​​Japan also by subtropical fish species. Total in the seas Far East There are about 800 species of fish, of which more than 600 are in the Sea of ​​Japan. Of commercial importance are salmon (chum salmon, pink salmon, coho salmon, chinook salmon, etc.), willow herring, and Pacific herring, and bottom fish include flounder, halibut, cod, as well as pollock and sea bass; in more southern parts - mackerel, conger eels, tuna and sharks. In addition, the Pacific seas are rich in crabs, sea ​​urchins, the islands are inhabited by fur seals and sea otters.

Seas of the Atlantic Ocean

Seas of the Atlantic Ocean: Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Azov Sea.

These seas are inland, they wash small areas of the country. The connection between these seas and the ocean is rather weak, and therefore their hydrological regime is unique.

The Baltic Sea (Varyazhskoye) is the westernmost of the seas of Russia. It is connected to the ocean through the shallow Denmark Strait and the shallow North Sea. The Baltic Sea itself is also shallow, it was formed in Quaternary times and was covered continental ice to the dregs. The sea is shallow, maximum depth Baltic Sea 470 m (south of Stockholm), in the Gulf of Finland the depth does not exceed 50 m.

The climate of the Baltic Sea is formed under the influence of the western transfer of air masses from the Atlantic. Cyclones often pass through the sea; annual precipitation exceeds 800 mm. Temperatures in summer over the Baltic are + 16-18°C, water temperature + 15-17°C. In winter, thaws dominate the sea; the average temperature in January is around 0°C, but with the invasion of Arctic air masses, the temperature can drop to -30°C. Only the Gulf of Finland freezes in winter, but in some severe winters the entire sea can freeze.

About 250 rivers flow into the Baltic Sea, but 20% of the river flow is brought by the Neva River. The salinity of water in the Baltic Sea does not exceed 14‰ (the average oceanic 35‰), off the coast of Russia (in the Gulf of Finland) the salinity is 2-3‰.

The Baltic fauna is not rich. Of commercial importance are: sprat, herring, eel, smelt, cod, whitefish, and lamprey. In addition, the sea is inhabited by a seal, the number of which is Lately is decreasing due to sea water pollution.

The Black Sea is the warmest of the Russian seas. In area it is almost equal to the Baltic Sea, but greatly exceeds it - due to its great depth - in volume: the maximum depth of the Black Sea is 2210 m. The connection between the Black Sea and the Atlantic is carried out through the system inland seas and straits.

The climate of the Black Sea is close to the Mediterranean (warm, wet winters and relatively dry, hot summers). In winter, northeast winds dominate over the sea. When cyclones pass, stormy winds often occur; The average air temperature in winter ranges from 0°C off the coast of Russia to +5°C on the southern coast of the sea. In summer, northwest winds prevail, the average air temperature is +22-25°C. Many rivers flow into the sea, the Danube giving the largest flow. The salinity of the Black Sea waters is 18-22‰, but near the mouths of large rivers the salinity decreases to 5-10‰.

Life lives only in upper layers sea, because Below 180 m, poisonous hydrogen sulfide is dissolved in water. The Black Sea is home to 166 species of fish: Mediterranean species - mackerel, horse mackerel, sprat, anchovy, tuna, mullet, etc.; freshwater species - pike perch, bream, ram. Pontic relics have been preserved here: beluga, stellate sturgeon, sturgeon, herring. Dolphins and seals live in the Black Sea among mammals.

The Sea of ​​Azov is the smallest sea in Russia and the shallowest in the world: its average depth is 7 m, and its greatest depth is 13 m. This sea is a shelf sea, it is connected to the Black Sea by the Kerch Strait. Due to its small size and deeply inland position, the sea has the features of a continental climate rather than a marine one. The average air temperature in January is about -3°C, but with stormy winds from the north-east, the temperature can drop to -25°C, although very rarely. In summer, the air over the Sea of ​​Azov warms up to +25°C.

Two rivers flow into the Sea of ​​Azov large rivers: Don and Kuban, which bring over 90% of the annual river flow. In addition to these rivers, about 20 other small rivers flow into it. Water salinity is about 13‰; By August, the water in the sea warms up to +25°C, and near the coast up to +30°C. In winter, most of the sea freezes; ice formation begins in December, in the Taganrog Bay. The sea is freed from ice only in April.

Organic world Sea of ​​Azov is diverse: it is home to about 80 species of fish, mainly Mediterranean and freshwater species - sprat, anchovy, pike perch, bream, sturgeon, etc.

Caspian sea-lake

The Caspian Sea belongs to an internal closed basin; it is a relict lake, but in the Neogene it was connected with the World Ocean. The Caspian Lake is the largest lake on Earth; in terms of its hydrological regime and large size, it is very similar to the sea.

The Caspian basin consists of three parts: northern – shelf, with depths up to 50 m; medium – with depths of 200-800 m; the southern one is deep-sea, with a maximum depth of 1025 m. The length of the Caspian Sea from north to south is 1200 km, from west to east – about 300 km.

The climate of the Caspian Sea varies from temperate in the north to subtropical in the south. In winter, the sea is under the influence of the Asian High, and north-easterly winds blow over it. The average air temperature ranges from -8°C in the north to +10°C in the south. The shallow northern part is covered with ice from January to March.

In summer, clear, hot weather prevails over the Caspian Sea, the average summer air temperature is +25-28°C. The annual precipitation over the Northern Caspian Sea is about 300 mm, and in the southwest it falls up to 1500 mm.

More than 130 rivers flow into the sea, but 80% of the river flow comes from the Volga River. Water salinity ranges from 0.5‰ in the north to 13‰ in the southeast.

The organic world of the Caspian Sea is not rich, but endemic; it is home to herring, gobies, sturgeon (beluga, stellate sturgeon, sterlet, sturgeon), carp, bream, pike perch, roach and other fish species, as well as seal.