Unified State Exam
Remote sensing of the earth during geological survey. Remote sensing of the earth. History and current state of aerospace sensing

Remote sensing of the earth during geological survey. Remote sensing of the earth. History and current state of aerospace sensing

6.1. Earth remote sensing concept

Remote sensing of the Earth (ERS) is understood as a non-contact study of the Earth, its surface, near-surface space and subsoil, individual objects, dynamic processes and phenomena by recording and analyzing their own or reflected electromagnetic radiation. Registration can be performed using technical means installed on aero- and spacecraft, as well as on the earth’s surface, for example, when studying the dynamics of erosion and landslide processes, etc.

Remote sensing, rapidly developing, has become an independent area of using images. The relationship between the main directions of using images and the names of the directions can be represented by a diagram (Fig. 34).

Rice. 34. Diagram of the relationship between the main processes of obtaining and processing images

Currently, most of the Earth's remote sensing data is obtained from artificial Earth satellites (AES). Remote sensing data are aerospace images that are presented in digital form in the form of raster images, therefore the problems of processing and interpreting remote sensing data are closely related to digital image processing.

Space image data has become available to a wide range of users and is actively used not only for scientific, but also for industrial purposes. Remote sensing is one of the main sources of current and operational data for geographic information systems (GIS). Scientific and technical achievements in the field of creation and development of space systems, technologies for obtaining, processing and interpreting data have greatly expanded the range of problems solved with the help of remote sensing. The main areas of application of remote sensing from space are studying the state of the environment, land use, studying plant communities, assessing crop yields, assessing the consequences of natural disasters, etc.

6.2. Applications of remote sensing data

The use of satellite images can be carried out to solve five problems.

1. Using the image as a simple map or, more precisely, a basis on which data from other sources can be applied in the absence of more accurate maps that reflect the current situation.

2. Determination of the spatial boundaries and structure of objects to determine their sizes and measure the corresponding areas.

3. Inventory of spatial objects in a certain territory.

4. Assessment of the condition of the territory.

5. Quantitative assessment of some properties of the earth's surface.

Remote sensing is a promising method for generating databases whose spatial, spectral and temporal resolution will be sufficient to solve problems of rational use of natural resources. Remote sensing is an effective method for inventorying natural resources and monitoring their condition. Since remote sensing allows one to obtain information about any area of the Earth, including the surface of seas and oceans, the scope of application of this method is truly limitless. The basis for the exploitation of natural resources is the analysis of information on land use and the state of land covers. In addition to collecting such information, remote sensing is also used to study natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods, landslides and subsidence.

Benefits of Remote Sensing

Remote sensing is the process of obtaining information about objects without coming into physical contact with them. However, this definition is too broad.

Therefore, we will introduce some restrictions that allow us to specify the features of the concept of “remote sensing”, and in particular, the concept of remote sensing of the atmosphere, which is important for ensuring aviation safety. Firstly, it is assumed that information is obtained using technical means.

Secondly, we are talking about objects located at significant distances from technical means, which fundamentally distinguishes remote sensing from other scientific and technical areas, such as non-destructive testing of materials and products, medical diagnostics, etc. We add that remote sensing uses indirect methods measurements.

Remote sensing includes studies of the atmosphere and the earth's surface, and subsurface sensing methods have recently developed. The use of methods and means of remote non-contact obtaining information about the state and parameters of the troposphere contributes to aviation safety.

The main advantages of remote sensing are the high speed of obtaining data on large volumes of the atmosphere (or large areas of the earth's surface), as well as the ability to obtain information about objects that are practically inaccessible for research by other means. With traditional meteorological measurements in the upper atmosphere carried out using balloons, sophisticated remote sensing techniques have been widely and systematically applied.

Remote sensing is quite expensive, especially from space. Despite this, a comparative analysis of costs and results obtained proves the high economic efficiency of sensing. In addition, the use of sensing data, particularly from weather satellites, ground-based and airborne radars, has saved thousands of lives by preventing natural disasters and avoiding hazardous weather events. Therefore, research. experimental, design and operational activities in the field of remote sensing, which are intensively developing in the leading countries of the world, are fully justified.

Objects and applications of remote sensing

The main objects of remote sensing are:

weather and climate (precipitation, clouds, wind, turbulence, radiation);

environmental elements (aerosols, gases, atmospheric electricity, transfer, i.e. redistribution of a particular substance in the atmosphere);

oceans and seas (sea waves, currents, amount of water, ice);

earth's surface (vegetation, geological research, resource studies, altitude).

Information obtained by means of remote sensing is necessary for many branches of science, technology and economics. The number of potential consumers of this information is constantly growing.

In order to ensure flight safety, remote sensing is used:

meteorology, climatology and atmospheric physics (operational data for weather forecasting, determining the profile of temperature, pressure and water vapor content in the atmosphere, measuring wind speed, etc.);

satellite navigation, communications, radar observations and radio navigation (these areas require data on the conditions of radio wave propagation, which are quickly obtained by remote sensing means);

aviation, for example, forecasting weather conditions at airports and on air routes, prompt detection of dangerous meteorological phenomena such as hail, thunderstorm, turbulence, wind shear, micro-explosion and icing.

In addition, the following areas are important in which aircraft are used as carriers of remote sensing equipment:

hydrology, including water resources assessment and management, snowmelt forecasting, flood warnings;

agricultural areas (weather forecast and control, control of the type, distribution and condition of vegetation, construction of soil type maps, determination of humidity, hail prevention, crop forecast);

ecology (control of air and land surface pollution);

oceanography (for example, measuring sea surface temperature, studying ocean currents and sea wave spectra);

glaciology (eg, mapping the distribution and movement of ice sheets and sea ice, determining the possibility of marine navigation in ice conditions);

geology, geomorphology and geodesy (e.g. identification of rock types, localization of geological defects and anomalies, measurement

Earth parameters and observation of tectonic movement);

topography and cartography (in particular, obtaining accurate data on height and linking them to a given coordinate system, producing maps and making changes to them);

natural disaster control (including monitoring the volume of floods, warning about sand and dust storms, avalanches, landslides, determining avalanche routes, etc.);

planning in other technical applications (eg land use inventory and change control, land resource assessment, traffic monitoring);

military applications (monitoring the movement of equipment and military units, terrain assessment).

Remote sensing systems and methods

The classification of remote sensing systems is based on the differences familiar to radar specialists between active and passive systems. Active systems irradiate the environment under study with electromagnetic radiation (EMR), which is provided by the sensing system, i.e. in this case, the sensing device generates electromagnetic energy and emits it in the direction of the object under study. Passive systems perceive EMR from the object under study in a natural way. This can be either its own EMR, arising in the sensing object itself, for example, thermal radiation, or scattered EMR from some natural external source, for example, solar radiation. The advantages and disadvantages of each of the two indicated types of remote sensing systems (active and passive) are determined by a number of factors. For example, a passive system is practically inapplicable in cases where there is no sufficiently intense intrinsic radiation of the objects under study in a given wavelength range. On the other hand, an active system becomes technically infeasible if the radiated power required to obtain a sufficient reflected signal is too high.

In some cases, to obtain the necessary information, it is desirable to know the exact parameters of the emitted signal in order to provide some special analysis capabilities, for example, measuring the Doppler frequency shift of the reflected signal to assess the movement of the target in relation to the sensor (receiver) or changes in the polarization of the reflected signal relative to the probing signal. Like any information-measuring systems that use EMR, remote sensing systems differ in frequency ranges of electromagnetic oscillations, for example, ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, millimeter, centimeter, decimeter.

Let's consider the remote sensing of the atmosphere, in particular, the troposphere - that part of the earth's atmosphere that is directly adjacent to the Earth's surface. The troposphere extends to altitudes of 10-15 km, and in tropical latitudes - up to 18 km. The use of remote sensing for the purpose of meteorological ensuring flight safety requires attention to systems that consider the atmosphere as a three-dimensional, volumetrically distributed object, and allow obtaining atmospheric profiles in different sensing directions.

Sensing objects, or targets, can be fluctuations that naturally occur in the atmosphere, as well as fixed objects at a certain distance from the remote sensing device. It is important to understand the essence of the different types of interaction between EMR and the atmosphere. Different types of such interaction are a convenient way to classify remote sensing methods. They are based on the attenuation, scattering and emission of electromagnetic oscillations by sensing objects. Schemes of the main processes of interaction of electromagnetic oscillations with atmospheric inhomogeneities in relation to remote sensing problems.

In the first case, radiation from a given known source (transmitter) arrives at the input of the receiver after it has passed through the object under study. The amount of radiation attenuation along the propagation path from the transmitter to the receiver is estimated, and it is assumed that the amount of electromagnetic energy loss when passing through an object is related to the properties of this object. The cause of loss may be absorption or a combination of absorption and scattering, which is the basis for obtaining information about an object. Many remote sensing methods are essentially based on this approach.

In the second case, when the source itself is a source of radiation, the task usually arises of measuring infrared and/or microwave emission, which is used to obtain information about the thermal structure of the atmosphere and its other properties. In addition, this approach is typical for studying a lightning discharge based on its own radio emission and for detecting thunderstorms at long distances.

The third case is to use the scattering of electromagnetic oscillations by an atmospheric formation to obtain information about it. Various sensing methods are based on the scattering property. One of them is characterized by the fact that the medium under study is illuminated by some source of incoherent radiation, for example, sunlight or infrared radiation that comes from the surface of the Earth, and the sensor of the remote sensing device receives the radiation scattered by the object. Another is that the object is irradiated by a special artificial (coherent or incoherent) source, for example, a laser or a source with a wavelength of decimeters to millimeters (as in the case of radar). This radiation is scattered by an object, detected by a receiver, and used to extract information about the scattering object.

Note that the first of the considered cases corresponds to an active sensing system, the second to a passive one, and the third is implemented in both passive and active versions.

An active remote sensing system can be mono-static, when the transmitter and receiver of the remote sensing device are located in one position, bistatic, or even multi-static, when the system consists of one or more transmitters and several receivers located in different positions.

The classification will not be complete enough if the main technical means of remote sensing are not indicated: radars, radiometers, leaders and other devices or systems used as remote sensing sensors.

The study of the atmosphere using remote sensing includes the use of instruments installed on artificial Earth satellites and orbital stations, airplanes, rockets, balloons, as well as equipment located on the ground. Most often, remote sensing equipment is carried by satellites, aircraft and ground-based platforms.

Inverse problems

Remote control problems are inverse problems, i.e., those in the solution of which we are forced to go from the result to the cause. These include all tasks of processing and interpreting observational data. The theory of inverse problems is an independent mathematical discipline, and remote sensing of the atmosphere is only one of the scientific and technical areas for which the theory of inverse problems is important. In the applied aspect, it is necessary to have a good understanding of how EMR interacts with the atmospheric objects under study, generating signals that are used to obtain information about the atmosphere. In the ideal case, there is a one-to-one correspondence between the measured signal parameter and the estimated atmospheric characteristic. But in real situations, problems characteristic of inverse problems always arise.

Let's consider a simple example that relates to passive atmospheric sensing. Let us assume that the absorbing gas in the atmosphere is characterized by its own radiation, depending on the temperature of the gas. This radiation is detected by a sensor located on the satellite. Let us also assume that there is a connection between the wavelength of radiation and temperature, and temperature depends on the height of the atmospheric layer. Knowing the relationship between radiation intensity, radiation wavelength, and gas temperature then provides a way to estimate the temperature of the atmospheric gas as a function of wavelength and therefore altitude. In fact, the situation is much more complicated than the ideal case described. Radiation at a given wavelength does not come from a single layer at the corresponding height, but is distributed throughout the atmosphere, so there is no one-to-one correspondence between wavelength and height, as assumed for the ideal case, which causes this relationship to be blurred. This example is typical of many inverse problems, where the limits of integration depend on the features of a particular problem. This equation is known as the Fredholm integral equation of the first kind. It is characterized by the fact that the boundaries of the integral are fixed and appear only in the integrand. The function is called the kernel or kernel function of the equation.

Various remote sensing problems are reduced to an equation or similar equations. To solve such problems, it is necessary to perform an inverse transformation so that, based on the measurement results, g. receive distribution. Such inverse problems are called ill-posed or ill-posed problems. Their solution is associated with overcoming the following three difficulties. In principle, the solution to an ill-posed problem may turn out to be mathematically non-existent, ambiguous, or unstable. Lack of solution

From the remote sensing point of view, hazardous meteorological phenomena (HME) can be considered as volumetrically distributed objects that occupy certain spatial zones in cloudiness or in a cloudless atmosphere (clear sky). The physical signs of the external manifestation of an NME are, as a rule, described by parameters that characterize the intensity of an NME and which, in principle, can be measured, for example, parameters of wind speed, electric and magnetic field strength, and precipitation intensity. The physical parameters of the PMN are considered.

Regions of the atmosphere in which the parameters characterizing the intensity of the NME exceed a certain specified level are called NME zones. The process of detecting MN and assigning their zones to certain spatial coordinates at a given time based on remote sensing results is called localization of MN zones.

Thus, in the process of localization by means of microwave remote sensing of the atmosphere, EM zones are detected and their location in a given coordinate system is determined. In some cases, it is also possible to evaluate the degree of intensity of the AMN.

Localization of dangerous flight zones by airborne radar means is the rapid detection and determination of location using weather navigation radars (MNRS) and other drilling devices that can be interfaced with MNRLS.

Earth remote sensing (ERS)- obtaining information about the Earth’s surface and objects on it, the atmosphere, the ocean, the upper layer of the earth’s crust using non-contact methods, in which the recording device is removed from the object of study at a considerable distance. The general physical basis of remote sensing is the functional relationship between the recorded parameters of an object's own or reflected radiation and its biogeophysical characteristics and spatial position.

In the modern appearance of remote sensing, two interrelated directions are distinguished - natural science (remote sensing) and engineering (remote methods), which is reflected in widely used English-language terms remote sensing And remote sensing techniques. Understanding the essence of remote sensing is ambiguous. Aerospace School of Moscow University. M.V. Lomonosov, as a subject of remote sensing as a scientific discipline, considers the spatio-temporal properties and relationships of natural and socio-economic objects, manifested directly or indirectly in their own or reflected radiation, remotely recorded from space or from the air in the form of a two-dimensional image - a snapshot . This essential part of remote sensing is called aerospace sounding (ASS), which emphasizes its continuity with traditional aerial methods. The aerospace sounding method is based on the use of images, which, as practice shows, provide the greatest opportunities for a comprehensive study of the earth's surface.

In all countries, requests from military departments serve as an effective incentive for the development of aerospace sensing. With the introduction of space methods and modern digital technologies, aerospace sensing is becoming increasingly important economically and is becoming a mandatory element of higher education in natural history universities, turning into a powerful means of studying the Earth from local studies of individual components to the global study of the planet as a whole. Therefore, when presenting various aspects of aerospace sounding, it is advisable to consider it as a research method that is effectively used in all earth sciences, and, above all, in geography.

History and current state of aerospace sensing

Remote sensing methods have been used in Earth research for a very long time. Initially used hand-drawn pictures, which recorded the spatial location of the objects being studied. With the invention of photography, ground-based phototheodolite photography arose, in which maps of mountainous areas were drawn up using perspective photographs. The development of aviation provided aerial photographs with an image of the area from above, in plan. This equipped the Earth sciences with a powerful research tool - aerial methods.

The history of the development of aerospace methods indicates that new advances in science and technology are immediately used to improve image acquisition technologies. This happened in the middle of the 20th century, when such innovations as computers, spacecraft, and electronic imaging systems made revolutionary changes in traditional aerial photography methods - aerospace sensing was born. Satellite images have provided geoinformation to solve problems at the regional and global levels.

Currently, the following trends in the progressive development of aerospace sensing are clearly visible.

Space images, promptly posted on the Internet, are becoming the most popular video information about the area for both professional specialists and the general public.
The resolution and metric properties of open-access space images are rapidly improving. Ultra-high resolution orbital images - meter and even decimeter - are becoming widespread, which successfully compete with aerial photographs.
Analog photographic images and traditional technologies for processing them are losing their former monopoly value. The main processing device was a computer equipped with specialized software and peripherals.
The development of all-weather radar turns it into a progressive method for obtaining metrically accurate spatial geoinformation, which begins to be effectively integrated with optical technologies of aerospace sensing.
A market for a variety of aerospace Earth sensing products is rapidly emerging. The number of commercial spacecraft operating in orbits, especially foreign ones, is steadily increasing. The most widely used images are obtained by resource satellite systems Landsat (USA), SPOT (France), IRS (India), mapping satellites ALOS (Japan), Cartosat (India), ultra-high resolution satellites Ikonos, QiuckBird, GeoEye (USA), including including radar TerraSAR-X and TanDEM-X (Germany), performing tandem interferometric survey. The system of space monitoring satellites RapidEye (Germany) is successfully operated.

Schematic flow diagram of remote sensing of the Earth

Rice. 1

Figure 1 summarizes the basic diagram of aerospace research. It includes the main technological stages: obtaining an image of the research object and further work with the images - their decoding and photogrammetric processing, as well as the final goal of the research - a map compiled from the images, a geographic information system, and a developed forecast. Since it is in most cases impossible to obtain the necessary characteristics of the object being studied only from photographs without any field definitions, without referring to the “earthly truth,” their standardization is necessary. An important element of image research is also the assessment of the reliability and accuracy of the results obtained. To do this, it is necessary to attract other information and process it using other methods, which requires additional costs.

Snapshot - the basic concept of aerospace sensing

Aerospace images- the main result of aerospace surveys, for which a variety of aviation and space carriers are used (Fig. 2). Aerospace photography is divided into passive, which provide for the registration of reflected solar or Earth’s own radiation, and active, in which the registration of reflected artificial radiation is performed.

Rice. 2

An aerospace image is a two-dimensional image of real objects, which is obtained according to certain geometric and radiometric (photometric) laws by remotely recording the brightness of objects and is intended to study visible and hidden objects, phenomena and processes of the surrounding world, as well as to determine their spatial position.

The range of scales of modern aerospace images is enormous: it can vary from 1:1000 to 1:100,000,000, i.e., a hundred thousand times. At the same time, the most common scales of aerial photographs lie in the range of 1:10,000–1:50,000, and space ones – 1:200,000–1:10,000,000. All aerospace photographs are usually divided into analog(usually photographic) and digital(electronic). The image of digital photographs is formed from individual identical elements - pixels(from English picture element— pixel); The brightness of each pixel is characterized by one number.

Aerospace images as information models of terrain are characterized by a number of properties, among which are pictorial, radiometric (photometric) and geometric. Fine properties characterize the ability of photographs to reproduce fine details, colors and tonal gradations of objects, radiometric indicate the accuracy of quantitative recording of object brightnesses by image, geometric characterize the possibility of determining from photographs the sizes, lengths and areas of objects and their relative positions.

Important indicators of an image are coverage and spatial resolution. Typically, research requires large-coverage, high-resolution images. However, it is not possible to satisfy these conflicting requirements in a single image. Typically, the greater the coverage of the resulting images, the lower their resolution. Therefore, you have to make compromises or shoot simultaneously with several systems with different parameters.

Acquisition technologies and main types of aerospace images

Aerospace photography is carried out in atmospheric transparency windows (Fig. 3), using radiation in different spectral ranges - light (visible, near and mid-infrared), thermal infrared and radio range.

Rice. 3

Each of them uses different image acquisition technologies and, depending on this, several types of images are distinguished (Fig. 4).

Fig.4

Images in the light range are divided into photographic and scanner, which in turn are divided into those obtained by optical-mechanical scanning (OM-scanner) and optical-electronic using linear radiation receivers based on charge-coupled devices (CCD-scanners). Such images display the optical characteristics of objects - their brightness, spectral brightness. Applying the multi-spectral shooting principle, multi-spectral images are obtained in this range, and with a large number of shooting zones - hyperspectral ones, the use of which is based on the spectral reflectivity of the objects being photographed, their spectral brightness.

By conducting surveys using thermal radiation receivers - thermal surveys - thermal infrared images are obtained. Photography in the radio range is carried out using both passive and active methods, and depending on this, images are divided into microwave radiometric, obtained by recording the own radiation of the objects under study, and radar images, obtained by recording reflected radio emission sent from the carrier - radar photography.

Methods for obtaining information from images: interpretation and photogrammetric measurements

Information necessary for research (subject-related and geometric) is extracted from images by two main methods: decoding and photogrammetric measurements

Decryption, which should answer the main question - What shown in the picture, allows you to obtain substantive, thematic (mostly qualitative) information about the object or process being studied, its connections with surrounding objects. Visual interpretation usually involves reading photographs and their interpretation (interpretation). The ability to read photographs is based on knowledge of the decipherable features of objects and the visual properties of photographs. The depth of interpretative decoding significantly depends on the level of training of the performer. The better the decipherer knows the subject of his research, the more complete and reliable the information extracted from the image.

Photogrammetric processing(measurements) is intended to answer the question - Where the object being studied is located and what are its geometric characteristics: size, shape. To do this, the images are transformed and their image is brought into a specific map projection. This allows you to determine the position of objects and their changes over time from images.

Modern computer technologies for obtaining information from images allow solving the following groups of problems:

visualization of digital images;
geometric and brightness transformations of images, including their correction;
construction of new derivative images from primary images;
determination of quantitative characteristics of objects;
computer interpretation of images (classification).

To perform computer decoding, the most common approach is used, based on spectral features, which are a set of spectral brightnesses recorded by a multispectral image. The formal task of computer image decoding comes down to classification—the sequential “sorting” of all the pixels of a digital image into several groups. For this purpose, classification algorithms of two types are proposed - with and without training, or clustering (from the English cluster - cluster, group). In supervised classification, the pixels of a multispectral image are grouped based on a comparison of their brightness in each spectral zone with reference values. When clustering, all pixels are divided into cluster groups according to some formal criterion, without resorting to training data. Then the clusters obtained as a result of automatic grouping of pixels are assigned by the decipherer to certain objects. The reliability of computer decoding is formally characterized by the ratio of the number of correctly classified pixels to their total number.

Computational algorithms based on the spectral features of individual pixels provide a reliable solution to only the simplest classification problems; they are rationally included as elements in the complex process of visual interpretation, which still remains the main method for extracting natural and socio-economic information from aerospace images.

Applications of aerospace sensing in mapping and Earth exploration

Aerospace images are used in all areas of Earth research, but the intensity of their use and the effectiveness of their application in different areas of research are different. They are extremely important in the study of the lithosphere, showing the fragmentation of the geological basement by linear faults and ring structures and facilitating the search for mineral deposits; in atmospheric research, where images provided the basis for weather forecasts; Thanks to images from space, the vortex structure of the ocean was discovered, the state of the Earth's vegetation cover at the turn of the century and its changes in recent decades were recorded. So far, space images are used much less in socio-economic research. The types of problems solved using images in different subject areas also differ. Thus, the solution of inventory problems is implemented in the study of natural resources, for example, when mapping soils and vegetation, since the images most fully reflect the complex spatial structure of the soil and vegetation cover. Assessment tasks and rapid assessment of the state of ecosystems are carried out as part of studies of the bioproductivity of the oceans, sea ice cover, and monitoring the fire hazard situation in forests. Forecasting tasks, the use of images for modeling and forecasting are most developed in meteorology, where their analysis is the basis of weather forecasts, and in hydrology - for forecasting melt runoff of rivers, floods and inundations. Research is beginning to predict seismic activity and earthquakes based on an analysis of the state of the lithosphere and upper atmosphere.

When working with images, all types of processing are used, but the most widely developed is image decoding, primarily visual, which is now supported by the capabilities of computer-improving transformations and classification of objects under study from images. The creation of various derivative images based on spectral indices from photographs has received great development. With the implementation of hyperspectral imaging, dozens of types of such index images began to be created. The development of methods for interferometric processing of radar survey materials has opened up the possibility of highly accurate determinations of displacements of the earth's surface. The transition to digital survey methods, the development of digital stereoscopic surveys and the creation of digital photogrammetric systems have expanded the capabilities of photogrammetric processing of space images, used mainly for creating and updating topographic maps.

Although one of the main advantages of space images is the joint display of all components of the earth’s shell, which ensures the complexity of research, nevertheless, the use of images in various areas of Earth study has so far been scattered, since in-depth development of their own methods was required everywhere. The idea of comprehensive research was most fully realized during the implementation in our country of a program of comprehensive cartographic inventory of natural resources, when a series of interconnected and mutually agreed upon maps were created from images. The awareness at the turn of the century of the environmental problems looming over humanity and the paradigm of studying the Earth as a system once again intensified complex interdisciplinary research.

Analysis of the use of images in different areas of research clearly shows that with all the variety of problems being solved, the main path to the practical use of aerospace images lies through a map, which has independent significance and, in addition, serves as the basic basis of GIS.

Recommended reading

1. Knizhnikov Yu.F., Kravtsova V.I., Tutubalina O.V.. Aerospace methods of geographical research - M.: Publishing Center Academy. 2004. 336 p.

3. Krasnopevtsev B.V. Photogrammetry. - M.:MIIGAiK, 2008. - 160 p.

2. Labutina I.A. Interpretation of aerospace images. - M.: Aspect Press. 2004. -184 p.

4. Smirnov L.E. Aerospace methods of geographical research. - St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg University Publishing House, 2005. - 348 p.

5. Fig. G.U. Fundamentals of remote sensing. -M.: Tekhnosphere, 2006, 336 p.

6. Jensen J.R. Remote sensing of the environment: an Earth resource perspective. - Prentice Hall, 2000. - 544 p.

Aerospace image atlases:

8. Interpretation of multispectral aerospace images. Methodology and results. - M.: Science; Berlin: Akademie-Verlag. - T. 1. - 1982. - 84 p.;

9. Interpretation of multispectral aerospace images. System "Fragment". Methodology and results. - M.: Science; Berlin: Akademie-Verlag. T. 2. - 1988. - 124 p.

10. Space methods of geoecology. - M.: Publishing house Moscow. University, 1998. - 104 p.

Remote sensing of the Earth(ERS) - observation of the Earth's surface by aviation and spacecraft equipped with various types of imaging equipment. The operating range of wavelengths received by filming equipment ranges from fractions of a micrometer (visible optical radiation) to meters (radio waves). Sensing methods can be passive, that is, to use the natural reflected or secondary thermal radiation of objects on the Earth’s surface caused by solar activity, and active– using stimulated emission of objects initiated by an artificial source of directional action. Remote sensing data obtained from spacecraft are characterized by a high degree of dependence on atmospheric transparency. Therefore, the spacecraft uses multi-channel equipment of passive and active types that detect electromagnetic radiation in various ranges.

Remote sensing equipment of the first spacecraft launched in the 1960-70s. was of the trace type - the projection of the measurement area onto the Earth's surface was a line. Later, panoramic remote sensing equipment appeared and became widespread - scanners, the projection of the measurement area onto the Earth’s surface is a strip.

Earth remote sensing spacecraft are used to study the Earth's natural resources and solve meteorological problems. Spacecraft for studying natural resources are equipped mainly with optical or radar equipment. The advantages of the latter are that it allows you to observe the Earth's surface at any time of the day, regardless of the state of the atmosphere.

Data processing

The quality of data obtained from remote sensing depends on its spatial, spectral, radiometric and temporal resolution.

Spatial resolution. It is characterized by the size of the pixel (on the Earth’s surface) recorded in a raster image - it can vary from 1 to 1000 m.

Spectral resolution. Landsat data includes seven bands, including the infrared spectrum, ranging from 0.07 to 2.1 microns. The Hyperion sensor of the Earth Observing-1 apparatus is capable of recording 220 spectral bands from 0.4 to 2.5 microns, with a spectral resolution from 0.1 to 0.11 microns.

Radiometric resolution. The number of signal levels that the sensor can detect. Typically varies from 8 to 14 bits, resulting in 256 to 16,384 levels. This characteristic also depends on the noise level in the instrument.

Temporary resolution. The frequency at which the satellite passes over the surface area of interest. Important when studying series of images, for example when studying forest dynamics. Initially, the analysis of the series was carried out for the needs of military intelligence, in particular to track changes in infrastructure and enemy movements.

To create accurate maps from remote sensing data, a transformation that eliminates geometric distortions is necessary. An image of the Earth's surface by a device pointing directly downward contains an undistorted image only in the center of the image. As you move toward the edges, the distances between points in the image and the corresponding distances on Earth become increasingly different. Correction of such distortions is carried out during the photogrammetry process. Since the early 1990s, most commercial satellite images have been sold pre-corrected.

In addition, radiometric or atmospheric correction may be required. Radiometric correction converts discrete signal levels, such as 0 to 255, into their true physical values. Atmospheric correction eliminates spectral distortions introduced by the presence of an atmosphere.

Within the framework of the NASA Earth Observing System program, levels of processing of remote sensing data were formulated:

Level	Description
	Data coming directly from the device, without overhead (sync frames, headers, retries).
1a	Reconstructed device data, equipped with time markers, radiometric coefficients, ephemeris (orbital coordinates) of the satellite.
1b	Level 1a data converted to physical units.
	Derived geophysical variables (ocean wave height, soil moisture, ice concentration) at the same resolution as Tier 1 data.
	Variables displayed on a universal space-time scale, possibly supplemented by interpolation.
	Data obtained as a result of calculations based on previous levels.

Rice. 9. . The electromagnetic spectrum and its division indicating the wavelengths established by various devices

Remote sensing systems. This type of system has three main components: an imaging device, a data acquisition environment, and a sensing base. A simple example of such a system is an amateur photographer (base) who uses a 35 mm camera (imaging device that forms an image) loaded with highly sensitive photographic film (recording medium) to photograph a river. The photographer is at some distance from the river, but records information about it and then stores it on photographic film.

Imaging devices, recording medium and base. Imaging instruments fall into four main categories: still and film cameras, multispectral scanners, radiometers, and active radars. Modern single-lens reflex cameras create an image by focusing ultraviolet, visible or infrared radiation coming from a subject onto photographic film. Once the film is developed, a permanent image (capable of being preserved for a long time) is obtained. The video camera allows you to receive an image on the screen; The permanent record in this case will be the corresponding recording on the videotape or a photograph taken from the screen. All other imaging systems use detectors or receivers that are sensitive at specific wavelengths in the spectrum. Photomultiplier tubes and semiconductor photodetectors, used in combination with optical-mechanical scanners, make it possible to record energy in the ultraviolet, visible, and near, mid, and far infrared regions of the spectrum and convert it into signals that can produce images on film. Microwave energy (microwave energy) is similarly transformed by radiometers or radars. Sonars use the energy of sound waves to produce images on photographic film.

Instruments used for imaging are located on a variety of bases, including on the ground, ships, airplanes, balloons and spacecraft. Special cameras and television systems are used every day to photograph physical and biological objects of interest on land, sea, atmosphere and space. Special time-lapse cameras are used to record changes in the earth's surface such as coastal erosion, glacier movement and vegetation evolution.

Data archives. Photographs and images taken as part of aerospace imaging programs are properly processed and stored. In the US and Russia, archives for such information data are created by governments. One of the main archives of this kind in the United States, the EROS (Earth Resources Obsevation Systems) Data Center, subordinate to the Department of the Interior, stores about 5 million aerial photographs and about 2 million images obtained from Landsat satellites, as well as copies of all aerial photographs and satellite images of the Earth's surface stored by NASA. This information is open access. Various military and intelligence organizations have extensive photo archives and archives of other visual materials.

Image analysis. The most important part of remote sensing is image analysis. Such analysis can be performed visually, by computer-enhanced visual methods, and entirely by computer; the latter two involve digital data analysis. Initially, most remote sensing data analysis work was done by visually examining individual aerial photographs or by using a stereoscope and overlaying the photographs to create a stereo model. Photographs were usually black and white and color, sometimes black and white and color in infrared, or - in rare cases - multispectral. The main users of data obtained from aerial photography are geologists, geographers, foresters, agronomists and, of course, cartographers. The researcher analyzes the aerial photograph in the laboratory to directly extract useful information from it, then plot it on one of the base maps and determine the areas that will need to be visited during field work. After field work, the researcher re-evaluates the aerial photographs and uses the data obtained from them and from field surveys to create the final map. Using these methods, many different thematic maps are prepared for release: geological, land use and topographic maps, maps of forests, soils and crops. Geologists and other scientists conduct laboratory and field studies of the spectral characteristics of various natural and civilizational changes occurring on Earth. The ideas of such research have found application in the design of multispectral scanners MSS (Multi-Spectral-Scanners), which are used on aircraft and spacecraft. The artificial Earth satellites Landsat-1, -2 and -4 (Landsat-1, -2 and -4) had on board MSS with four spectral bands: from 0.5 to 0.6 μm (green); from 0.6 to 0.7 µm (red); from 0.7 to 0.8 µm (near IR); from 0.8 to 1.1 µm (IR). The Landsat 3 satellite also uses a band from 10.4 to 12.5 microns. Standard composite images using the artificial coloring method are obtained by combining MSS with the first, second and fourth bands in combination with blue, green and red filters, respectively. On the Landsat 4 satellite with the advanced MSS scanner, the thematic mapper provides images in seven spectral bands: three in the visible region, one in the near-infrared region, two in the mid-infrared region and one in the thermal infrared region. areas. Thanks to this instrument, the spatial resolution was improved almost threefold (to 30 m) compared to that provided by the Landsat satellite, which used only the MSS scanner. Since the sensitive satellite sensors were not designed for stereoscopic imaging, it was necessary to differentiate certain features and phenomena within one specific image using spectral differences. MSS scanners can distinguish between five broad categories of land surfaces: water, snow and ice, vegetation, outcrop and soil, and human-related features. A scientist who is familiar with the area under study can analyze an image obtained in a single broad spectral band, such as a black-and-white aerial photograph, which is typically obtained by recording radiation with wavelengths from 0.5 to 0.7 µm (green and red regions of the spectrum). However, as the number of new spectral bands increases, it becomes increasingly difficult for the human eye to distinguish between important features of similar tones in different parts of the spectrum. For example, just one survey shot from the Landsat satellite using MSS in the 0.5-0.6 micron band contains about 7.5 million pixels (image elements), each of which can have up to 128 shades of gray ranging from 0 (black) to 128 (white). When comparing two Landsat images of the same area, you're dealing with 60 million pixels; one image obtained from Landsat 4 and processed by the mapper contains about 227 million pixels. It clearly follows that computers must be used to analyze such images.

Digital image processing. Image analysis uses computers to compare the gray scale (range of discrete numbers) values of each pixel in images taken on the same day or on several different days. Image analysis systems classify specific features of a survey to produce a thematic map of the area. Modern image reproduction systems make it possible to reproduce on a color television monitor one or more spectral bands processed by a satellite with an MSS scanner. The movable cursor is placed on one of the pixels or on a matrix of pixels located within some specific feature, for example a body of water. The computer correlates all four MSS bands and classifies all other parts of the satellite image that have similar sets of digital numbers. The researcher can then color code areas of "water" on a color monitor to create a "map" showing all the bodies of water in the satellite image. This procedure, known as regulated classification, allows systematic classification of all parts of the analyzed image. It is possible to identify all major types of earth's surface. The computer classification schemes described are quite simple, but the world around us is complex. Water, for example, does not necessarily have a single spectral characteristic. Within the same shot, bodies of water can be clean or dirty, deep or shallow, partially covered with algae or frozen, and each of them has its own spectral reflectance (and therefore its own digital characteristic). The interactive digital image analysis system IDIMS uses a non-regulated classification scheme. IDIMS automatically places each pixel into one of several dozen classes. After computer classification, similar classes (for example, five or six water classes) can be collected into one. However, many areas of the earth's surface have rather complex spectra, which makes it difficult to unambiguously distinguish between them. An oak grove, for example, may appear in satellite images to be spectrally indistinguishable from a maple grove, although this problem is solved very simply on the ground. According to their spectral characteristics, oak and maple belong to broad-leaved species. Computer processing with image content identification algorithms can significantly improve the MSS image compared to the standard one.

Note. Remote sensing data serves as the main source of information in the preparation of land use and topographic maps. NOAA and GOES weather and geodetic satellites are used to monitor cloud changes and the development of cyclones, including hurricanes and typhoons. NOAA satellite imagery is also used to map seasonal changes in snow cover in the northern hemisphere for climate research and to study changes in sea currents, which can help reduce shipping times. Microwave instruments on the Nimbus satellites are used to map seasonal changes in ice cover in the Arctic and Antarctic seas.

Remote sensing data from aircraft and artificial satellites are increasingly being used to monitor natural grasslands. Aerial photographs are very useful in forestry because of the high resolution they can achieve, as well as the accurate measurement of plant cover and how it changes over time.

Infrared aerial thermography from space makes it possible to distinguish areas of local Gulf Stream currents.

And yet, it is in the geological sciences that remote sensing has received the widest application. Remote sensing data is used to compile geological maps, indicating rock types and structural and tectonic features of the area. In economic geology, remote sensing serves as a valuable tool for locating mineral deposits and geothermal energy sources. Engineering geology uses remote sensing data to select suitable construction sites, locate construction materials, monitor surface mining and land reclamation, and conduct engineering work in coastal areas. In addition, these data are used in assessments of seismic, volcanic, glaciological and other geological hazards, as well as in situations such as forest fires and industrial accidents.

Remote sensing data forms an important part of research in glaciology(related to the characteristics of glaciers and snow cover), in geomorphology(forms and characteristics of relief), in marine geology(morphology of the bottom of seas and oceans), in geobotany(due to the dependence of vegetation on underlying mineral deposits) and in archaeological geology. IN astrogeology Remote sensing data is of paramount importance for the study of other planets and moons in the solar system, as well as comparative planetology to study the history of the Earth. However, the most exciting aspect of remote sensing is that satellites placed in Earth orbit for the first time have given scientists the ability to observe, track and study our planet as a complete system, including its dynamic atmosphere and landforms as they change under the influence of natural factors and human activities. Images obtained from satellites may help find the key to predicting climate change, including those caused by natural and man-made factors. Although the USA and Russia since the 1960s. conduct remote sensing, other countries are also contributing. The Japanese and European Space Agencies plan to launch a large number of satellites into low-Earth orbits designed to study the Earth's land, seas and atmosphere.

The first Soviet satellite, Zenit-2, was created at OKB-1. From 1965 to 1982, on the basis of the Zenit satellite, TsSKB-Progress created seven modifications of Earth remote sensing satellites. In total, to date, TsSKB-Progress has created 26 types of automatic satellites for observing the earth’s surface, solving the entire range of problems in the interests of national security, science and the national economy.

From 1988 to 1999, 19 successful launches of the Resurs-F1 and Resurs-F1M spacecraft were carried out. From 1987 to 1995, 9 successful launches of the Resurs-F2 spacecraft were made.

The Resurs-F2 space complex is designed to carry out multispectral and spectrozonal photography of the Earth's surface in the visible and near-infrared ranges of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum with high geometric and photometric characteristics in the interests of various sectors of the national economy and Earth sciences.

The Resurs-DK space complex is a unique development of TsSKB-Progress, combining time-tested technical solutions and advanced achievements in design ideas. The Resurs-DK space complex provides multispectral remote sensing of the earth's surface and prompt delivery of highly informative images via radio to Earth.

In November 2010, a number of Resursa-DK systems failed, after which the device could no longer be used for its intended purpose.

Resurs-P is intended to replace the old Resurs-DK satellite.

The uniqueness of the new Earth sensing apparatus "Resurs-P" is in the set of scanners - four or five imaging systems will be installed on it. This will make it possible to receive information from the Earth not in three colors, as now, but in the full color gamut and near-infrared range.

The new satellite complex will be more accurate and efficient than its predecessor. According to the developers, “Resurs-P” will make it possible to study the evolution of climate, obtain space data on large-scale processes in the atmosphere and on the Earth’s surface, monitor emergency situations, predict earthquakes, notify about tsunamis, fires, oil spills and much more.

Rice. Resurs-DK

Kosmos-1076 is the first Soviet specialized oceanographic satellite. This is one of two satellites that participated in the Ocean-E experiment (the second is Kosmos-1151). Both are made on the basis of the AUOS-3 type spacecraft. Chief designers: V.M. Kovtunenko, B.E. Khmyrov, S.N. Konyukhov, V.I. Dranovsky. The data obtained by the satellite made it possible to create the first Soviet space database on the World Ocean:18 The satellite was equipped with track-type Earth remote sensing (ERS) equipment.

Yuzhnoye Design Bureau

oceanographic research

Launch vehicle

11K68 (“Cyclone-3”)

Launch pad

Plesetsk, launch complex No. 32/2

Deorbiting

Specifications

Orbital elements

Orbit type

Subpolar

Mood

Circulation period

Apocentre

Pericenter

Monitor is a series of small spacecraft for remote sensing of the Earth created at the State Research and Production Space Center named after. M. V. Khrunichev on the basis of the unified space platform “Yacht”. It was assumed that the series would consist of satellites “Monitor-E”, “Monitor-I”, “Monitor-S”, “Monitor-O” equipped with various optical-electronic equipment and “Monitor-R” equipped with radar systems." At the moment There are no Monitor series satellites in the federal space program.

Monitor-E

The first of the series satellites, Monitor-E (experimental), is designed to test new target equipment and service systems of the Yachta platform. The satellite, weighing 750 kg, is equipped with two cameras with a resolution of 8 m in panchromatic mode (one channel) and 20 m in multi-channel mode (3 channels). Monitor-E images will cover an area measuring 90 by 90 km and 160 by 160 km. On-board memory capacity is 50 gigabytes (2×25). The satellite is designed in a non-pressurized design, on a modular basis, which allows, if necessary, to expand the capabilities of the spacecraft due to additional equipment. The target equipment is capable of transmitting information in near real time. The satellite is equipped with an electric propulsion system (EPS), using xenon as the working fluid of the EPS. The estimated active life of the device is 5 years.

Monitor-E was launched on August 26, 2005 from the Plesetsk cosmodrome using a Rokot launch vehicle. The satellite was launched into a sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of 550 km. After entering orbit, communication with the device could not be established due to the failure of the ground equipment of the radio control line for the on-board equipment. It was possible to establish communication with the satellite only after a day. However, already on October 18, the device encountered serious problems related to its control, after which it entered an unoriented mode. This happened due to a temporary failure of one of the channels of the gyroscopic angular velocity vector meter (GYVUS). Soon this problem was solved, and already on November 23, 2005, the functionality of the radio links for transmitting images from the spacecraft was checked. On November 26, 2005, the first images of the earth's surface were obtained from a camera with a resolution of 20 meters, and on November 30, a camera with a resolution of 8 meters was tested. Thus, it can be argued that the operation of the Monitor-E spacecraft has been completely restored.

In 2011, the operation of the spacecraft was suspended.

The Landsat program is the longest-running project to obtain satellite photographs of the planet Earth. The first of the program's satellites was launched in 1972; the latest, to date, Landsat 7 - April 15, 1999. The equipment installed on the Landsat satellites has taken billions of images. Imagery acquired in the United States and from satellite data stations around the world provides a unique resource for a variety of scientific research in the fields of agriculture, cartography, geology, forestry, intelligence, education and national security. For example, Landsat-7 delivers images in 8 spectral ranges with spatial resolution from 15 to 60 m per point; The frequency of data collection for the entire planet was initially 16 days.

In 1969, the year of man's flight to the Moon, the Hughes Santa Barbara Research Center began development and production of the first three multispectral scanners (MSS). The first MSS prototypes were produced within 9 months, by the fall of 1970, after which they were tested on the granite dome of Half Dome in Yosemite National Park.

The original optical design of the MSS was created by Jim Kodak, an opto-mechanical systems engineer who also designed the optical camera on the Pioneer mission, which was the first optical instrument to leave the solar system.

When it was created in 1966, the program was called Earth Resources Observation Satellites, but in 1975 the program was renamed. In 1979, with Presidential Directive 54, US President Jimmy Carter transferred control of the program from NASA to NOAA, recommending the development of a long-term system with 4 additional satellites after Landsat 3, as well as transfer of the program to the private sector. This happened in 1985 when a team from the Earth Observation Satellite Company (EOSAT), Hughes Aircraft and RCA were selected by NOAA to operate the Landsat system under a ten-year contract. EOSAT operated Landsat 4 and 5, had exclusive rights to sell data generated by the program, and built Landsat 6 and 7.

Satellite photo of Kolkata in simulated-color. Taken by NASA's Landsat 7 satellite.

In 1989, while the program transition was not yet fully completed, NOAA had exhausted its budget for the Landsat program (NOAA had not requested funding and the US Congress had allocated funding for only half of the fiscal year) and NOAA decided to close Landsat 4 and 5. . The head of the new National Space Council, Vice President James Quayle, drew attention to the current situation and helped the program receive emergency funding.

In 1990 and 1991, Congress again provided NOAA with funding for only half of the year, requiring other agencies using data collected by the Landsat program to provide the remaining half of the required money. In 1992, efforts were made to restore funding, but by the end of the year EOSAT had ceased processing Landsat data. Landsat 6 was launched on October 5, 1993, but was lost in an accident. Data processing from Landsat 4 and 5 was resumed by EOSAT in 1994. Landsat 7 was launched by NASA on April 15, 1999.

The importance of the Landsat program was recognized by Congress in October 1992, with the passage of the Land Remote Sensing Policy Act (Public Law 102-555), which allowed the continued operation of Landsat 7 and ensured the availability of Landsat data and images at the lowest possible prices. prices for both current and new users.

Launch chronology

Landsat-1 (originally ERTS-1, Earth Resources Technology Satellite -1) - launched July 23, 1972, ceased operation January 6, 1978

Landsat 7 - launched April 15, 1999, operational. Since May 2003, the Scan Line Corrector (SLC) module has failed. Since September 2003, it has been used in a mode without scanning line correction, which reduces the amount of information received to 75% of the original.

Technical details

The next satellite in the program should be the Landsat Data Continuity Mission. The launch is scheduled for 2012. The new satellite is being built in Arizona by Orbital Sciences Corporation.

We talked about what Earth remote sensing (ERS) is and what practical applications it has with Evgeniy Lupyan, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Deputy Director of the Space Research Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Are the days of spy satellites over?

— Evgeniy Arkadyevich, how many devices are currently in space that observe the Earth’s surface? And how many of them are Russian?

— In total, there are about 400 satellites flying in orbit, engaged specifically in remote sensing. It is planned that by 2020 there will be 1200-1300 of them. Unfortunately, there are very few Russian devices among them: only 9 pieces. Agree, this is not a very good situation. There was a time when our country occupied one of the leading positions in this area, but then gave it up. Now we are trying to restore it.

Remote sensing of the Earth is a very promising area, because the capabilities of systems for observing the planet from space are constantly growing. A few years ago there was a revolution in this area. The American company PlanetLab launched a whole swarm of small devices into space: more than 200 satellites! They take pictures with a resolution of about 3-4 meters, and in one day they actually cover the entire surface of the planet. For comparison: to carry out such a survey with our Canopus series devices (there are currently 6 of them in orbit), it will take several months.

Kanopus-V at MAKS-2013. Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org / Vitaly V. Kuzmin

Another important event that influenced the development of remote sensing of the Earth occurred several years ago. Then the American and European space agencies opened up free access to significant amounts of their data, which have a resolution worse than 10 meters. This has significantly expanded the possibilities for creating new methods and technologies for working with data. First of all, for continuous monitoring of various objects and phenomena. Previously, solving such problems, as a rule, was unprofitable due to the high costs of acquiring data.

- It seems that it is already difficult to hide something on the surface of the Earth. Is the time of spy satellites irrevocably over?

- Not certainly in that way. The tasks of such satellites, of course, remain. They are also improving technically. But completely new areas have emerged in which it has become possible to use remote sensing data.

80% of weather forecasts are from space

— At what altitude do remote sensing satellites fly?

— The so-called low-orbit ones are usually located in orbits with altitudes from 400 to 800 km. One revolution around the Earth takes them about 90 minutes.

There are geostationary satellites that fly at an altitude of 36 thousand km. More precisely, they do not fly, but hang at one point all the time. Their resolution is not very high: for the best devices it can be 500 meters. But they allow observations to be made every 10 minutes, and in some cases - every 2 minutes. This is very important when we monitor rapidly developing processes. For example, behind volcanic eruptions and the movement of ash clouds ejected by them.

— Are satellites launched to monitor volcanoes? Is it so important?

— To people living in Moscow, ash emissions from volcanoes probably seem like something insignificant. But this is exactly until they need to buy a plane ticket to fly somewhere else on Earth. Let me remind you that in 2010, due to a volcanic eruption in Iceland, European airspace was closed to air travel for several days.

Earth remote sensing has a huge number of applications. This is monitoring and predicting natural disasters: not only volcanic eruptions, but also fires, floods, hurricanes, etc. These are weather forecasts: 80% of the information used for these purposes is obtained from space.

This is, for example, agriculture. With the help of satellites, they evaluate the condition of crops, soil characteristics (humidity, erosion), and analyze how crops should be processed in order to achieve maximum yields in a particular field (the so-called precision farming tasks). Satellites help to understand how certain agricultural crops develop over time in different regions of the Earth. For example, wheat. By looking at a series of satellite images and comparing them with observations from previous years, we can, among other things, get an early estimate of the harvest in a particular year.

Let's take forestry. It’s impossible to imagine it without satellite monitoring. It’s probably not worth reminding us what the forest means to our country. Modern satellite methods make it possible to map forests, monitor fires, quickly detect them and optimize extinguishing efforts. A system that solves similar problems throughout the country was created back in 2005. And since then it has been constantly working.

And it will save you from a heart attack

“I’ve heard that satellites even track schools of fish in the ocean. This is true?

- They don’t track it directly. The following scheme is used there. Fish are known to feed on plankton. From the satellite you can clearly see where there is how much plankton is, what color it is and other characteristics. And based on this data, we can guess whether fish will come to this area. Accordingly, notification can be sent to fishing vessels.

Earth remote sensing technologies have already reached the point where they can measure energy losses in residential buildings. On a detailed level! And this opens up new opportunities for energy and utility companies. Using the information obtained, they can change the insulation structure of buildings.

Just recently, our colleagues from the Research Center for Environmental Safety of the Russian Academy of Sciences received very interesting facts about St. Petersburg. There, measurements of heat emissions were made in different areas. Then they took various climate change scenarios and obtained a forecast of an increase in mortality from cardiovascular diseases in certain urban areas. Here is an example of how remote sensing of the Earth can provide information for planning medical care. Timely measures taken will help save the lives of specific people.

— Will they be moved from areas where it is too warm to cooler ones?

— There are less radical measures. You can plant trees there, paint the roofs of houses with special reflective paint. Or just white.

— We are far behind the United States and China in terms of the number of remote sensing satellites. You yourself said that we only have 9 of them. But in some ways do we have priority in this area?

- We have. As I already said, many foreign companies have now opened access to their data and made the information free. And in Russia there is a very good school of programming and data processing. We have created algorithms that obtain certain characteristics from this publicly available data, analyze them and allow them to be used to solve various problems.

New technologies are developing very quickly in the country, thanks to which it is possible to effectively work with extremely large data flows from various remote sensing systems. There has been progress in creating centers that provide distributed work with archives of this data. For example, such a center for collective use has been created at our Space Research Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences. About 80 scientific organizations located in different cities of our (and not only our) country take advantage of its capabilities.

In terms of its functionality, our center is, if not one of the top three, then certainly one of the top five similar centers in the world. Of course, in purely hardware terms, it is difficult for us to compete with Google and Amazon. First of all, because of the incomparability of the financial resources that they allocate to their centers for development. But this forces us to look for new approaches and solutions. And we find them.