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Influential women of the Ottoman Empire. The concubine who changed the history of the Ottoman Empire. Definition of the titles of Turkish sultans

Influential women of the Ottoman Empire. The concubine who changed the history of the Ottoman Empire. Definition of the titles of Turkish sultans

P The last sultana of Ottoman origin was the mother of Suleiman I the Magnificent, her name was Aishe Sultan Hafsa (December 5, 1479 - March 19, 1534), according to sources, she was from Crimea and was the daughter of Khan Mengli-Girey. However, this information is controversial and has not yet been fully verified.

After Aishe, the era of the “female sultanate” (1550-1656) began, when women influenced government affairs. Naturally, they cannot be compared with European rulers (Catherine II, or Elizabeth I of England) due to the fact that these women had disproportionately less power, personal freedom and were further from absolutism. It is believed that this era began with Anastasia (Alexandra) Lisovskaya, or Roksolana known to us. She was the wife of Suleiman I the Magnificent and the mother of Selim II, and became the first sultana taken from the harem.

After Roksolana, the main women of the country became two relatives, two beautiful Venetian women from the Baffo family, Cecilia and Sofia. Both one and the other came to the top through the harem. Cecilia Baffo became Roksolana's daughter-in-law.

So, Cecilia Vernier-Baffo, or Nurbanu Sultan, was born on the island of Paros around 1525. Her father was a noble Venetian, the governor of the island of Paros, Nicolo Venier, and her mother was Violanta Baffo. The girl's parents were not married, so the girl was named Cecilia Baffo, giving her mother's surname.

According to another, less popular version, based on Ottoman sources, Nurbanu's real name was Rachel, and she was the daughter of Violanta Baffo and an unknown Spanish Jew.

Little is known about Cecilia's history.

It is known that in 1537, the pirate and admiral of the Turkish flotilla Khair ad-din Barbarossa captured Paros and 12-year-old Cecilia was enslaved. She was sold to the Sultan's harem, where Hurrem Sultan was noticed for her intelligence . Hurrem gave her the name Nurbanu, which means "Queen who exudes divine light" and sent her to serve her son, Prince Selim.

According to the chronicles, having reached adulthood in 1543, Selim was sent to Konya to take up the post due to him as heir, Cecilia Nurbanu accompanied him. At this time, the young prince was inflamed with love for his beautiful accompanying odalisque.

Soon Nurbanu had a daughter, Shah Sultan, and later, in 1546, a son, Murad, who was at that time the only son of Selim. Later, Nurbanu Sultan gave birth to four more daughters for Selima. And after Selim’s accession to the throne, Nurbanu becomes Haseki.

In the Ottoman Empire itself, Selim received the nickname “Drunkard” because of his passion for wine, but he was not a drunkard in the literal sense of the word. And yet, state affairs were handled by Mehmed Sokollu (Grand Vizier of Bosnian origin Boyko Sokolović), who came under the influence of Nurbanu.

As a ruler, Nurbanu corresponded with many ruling dynasties, pursued a pro-Venetian policy, for which the Genoese hated her and, judging by rumors, the Genoese ambassador poisoned her.

In honor of Nurban, the Attik Valide Mosque was built near the capital, where she was buried in 1583, bitterly mourned by her son Murad III, who often relied on his mother in his politics.

Safiye Sultan (translated from Turkish as "Pure"), born Sofia Baffo, was of Venetian origin, and was a relative of her mother-in-law, Nurban Sultan. She was born around 1550, the daughter of the ruler of the Greek island of Corfu and a relative of the Venetian senator and poet Giorgio Baffo.

Sofia, like Cecilia, was captured by corsairs and sold into a harem, where she then attracted the attention of Crown Prince Murad, for whom she became the only favorite for a long time. It was rumored that the reason for such constancy were problems in the prince’s intimate life, which only Safiye knew how to somehow overcome. These rumors are very similar to the truth, since before Murad became Sultan (in 1574, at the age of 28, after the death of his father Sultan Selim II), he only had children with Safiye.

Having become the ruler of the Ottoman Empire, Murad III, apparently, recovered after some time from his intimate illness, since he moved from forced monogamy to sexual excesses, and practically devoted his later life exclusively for the pleasures of the flesh, to the detriment of state affairs. So 20 sons and 27 daughters (however, we should not forget that in the 15th-16th centuries infant mortality was very high and out of 10 newborn babies, 7 died in childhood, 2 in adolescence and young adulthood, and only one had any chance live to at least 40 years old), which Sultan Murad III left after his death - a completely natural result of his lifestyle.

in the 15th-16th centuries, infant mortality was very high and out of 10 newborn babies, 7 died in childhood, 2 in adolescence and young adulthood, and only one had any chance of surviving at least 40 years

Despite the fact that Murad never married his beloved Safiya, this did not stop her from becoming one of the most influential women of that time.

The first nine years of his reign, Murad completely shared with his mother Nurbana, obeyed her in everything. And it was Nurbanu who played an important role in his attitude towards Safiya. Despite family ties, both in state affairs and in the affairs of the harem, Venetian women constantly fought with each other for leadership. Nevertheless, as they say, youth won.

In 1583, after the death of Nurbanu Sultan, Safiye Sultan began to strengthen the position of her son Mehmed as the heir of Murad III. Mehmed was already 15 years old and he was very popular among the Janissaries, which greatly frightened his father. Murad III even prepared conspiracies, but Safiyya always managed to warn her son. This struggle continued for 12 years, until Murad’s death.

A traditional harem (from the Arabic “haram” - forbidden) is primarily the female half of a Muslim home. Only the head of the family and his sons had access to the harem. For everyone else, this part of the Arab home is strictly taboo. This taboo was observed so strictly and zealously that the Turkish chronicler Dursun Bey wrote: “If the sun were a man, even he would be forbidden to look into the harem.” The harem is a kingdom of luxury and lost hopes...

The Sultan's harem was located in the Istanbul palace Topkapi. The mother (valide-sultan), sisters, daughters and heirs (shahzade) of the sultan, his wives (kadyn-effendi), favorites and concubines (odalisques, slaves - jariye) lived here.

From 700 to 1200 women could live in a harem at the same time. The inhabitants of the harem were served by black eunuchs (karagalar), commanded by darussaade agasy. Kapi-agasy, the head of the white eunuchs (akagalar), was responsible for both the harem and the inner chambers of the palace (enderun), where the sultan lived. Until 1587, the kapi-agas had power inside the palace comparable to the power of the vizier outside it, then the heads of the black eunuchs became more influential.

The harem itself was actually controlled by the Valide Sultan. The next in rank were the Sultan's unmarried sisters, then his wives.

The income of the women of the Sultan's family was made up of funds called bashmaklyk (“per shoe”).

There were few slaves in the Sultan's harem; usually concubines became girls who were sold by their parents to the school at the harem and underwent special training there.

In order to cross the threshold of the seraglio, a slave underwent a kind of initiation ceremony. In addition to testing for innocence, the girl had to convert to Islam.

Entering a harem was in many ways reminiscent of being tonsured as a nun, where instead of selfless service to God, no less selfless service to the master was instilled. Concubine candidates, like God's brides, were forced to sever all ties with the outside world, received new names and learned to live in submission.

In later harems, wives were absent as such. The main source of the privileged position was the attention of the Sultan and childbearing. By paying attention to one of the concubines, the owner of the harem elevated her to the rank of temporary wife. This situation was most often precarious and could change at any moment depending on the master’s mood. The most reliable way to gain a foothold in the status of a wife was the birth of a boy. A concubine who gave her master a son acquired the status of mistress.

The largest harem in the history of the Muslim world was the Istanbul harem of Dar-ul-Seadet, in which all the women were foreign slaves; free Turkish women did not go there. The concubines in this harem were called “odalisque”, a little later the Europeans added the letter “s” to the word and it turned out to be “odalisque”.

And here is Topkapi Palace, where the Harem lived

The Sultan chose up to seven wives from among the odalisques. Those who were lucky enough to become a “wife” received the title “kadyn” - madam. The main “kadyn” became the one who managed to give birth to her first child. But even the most prolific “Kadyn” could not count on the honorary title of “Sultana”. Only the mother, sisters and daughters of the Sultan could be called sultanas.

Transport of wives, concubines, in short, a harem taxi fleet

Just below the “kadyn” on the hierarchical ladder of the harem stood the favorites - “ikbal”. These women received salaries, their own apartments and personal slaves.

The favorites were not only skilled mistresses, but also, as a rule, subtle and intelligent politicians. In Turkish society, it was through “ikbal” that for a certain bribe one could go directly to the Sultan himself, bypassing the bureaucratic obstacles of the state. Below “ikbal” were “konkubin”. These young ladies were somewhat less fortunate. Conditions of detention are worse, there are fewer privileges.

It was at the “concubin” stage that there was the toughest competition, in which daggers and poison were often used. Theoretically, the Concubins, like the Iqbals, had a chance to climb the hierarchical ladder by giving birth to a child.

But unlike the favorites close to the Sultan, they had very little chance of this wonderful event. Firstly, if there are up to a thousand concubines in the harem, then it is easier to wait for the weather by the sea than for the holy sacrament of mating with the Sultan.

Secondly, even if the Sultan descends, it is not at all a fact that the happy concubine will definitely become pregnant. And it’s certainly not a fact that they won’t arrange a miscarriage for her.

Old slaves watched over the concubines, and any noticed pregnancy was immediately terminated. In principle, it is quite logical - any woman in labor, one way or another, became a contender for the role of a legitimate “kadyn”, and her baby became a potential contender for the throne.

If, despite all the intrigues and machinations, the odalisque managed to maintain the pregnancy and did not allow the child to be killed during an “unsuccessful birth,” she automatically received her personal staff of slaves, eunuchs and an annual salary “basmalik.”

Girls were bought from their fathers at the age of 5-7 years and raised until they were 14-15 years old. They were taught music, cooking, sewing, court etiquette, and the art of giving pleasure to a man. When selling his daughter to a harem school, the father signed a paper stating that he had no rights to his daughter and agreed not to meet with her for the rest of his life. Once in the harem, the girls received a different name.

When choosing a concubine for the night, the Sultan sent her a gift (often a shawl or ring). After that, she was sent to the bathhouse, dressed in beautiful clothes and sent to the door of the Sultan's bedroom, where she waited until the Sultan went to bed. Entering the bedroom, she crawled on her knees to the bed and kissed the carpet. In the morning, the Sultan sent the concubine rich gifts if he liked the night spent with her.

The Sultan could have favorites - güzde. Here is one of the most famous, Ukrainian Roxalana

Suleiman the Magnificent

Baths of Hurrem Sultan (Roksolany), wife of Suleiman the Magnificent, built in 1556 next to the Hagia Sophia Cathedral in Istanbul. Architect Mimar Sinan.

Mausoleum of Roxalana

Valide with a black eunuch

Reconstruction of one of the rooms of the Valide Sultan apartment in Topkapi Palace. Melike Safiye Sultan (possibly born Sophia Baffo) was a concubine of the Ottoman Sultan Murad III and the mother of Mehmed III. During Mehmed's reign, she bore the title Valide Sultan (mother of the Sultan) and was one of the most important figures in Ottoman Empire.

Only the Sultan's mother, Valide, was considered equal to her. Valide Sultan, regardless of her origin, could be very influential (most famous example- Nurban).

Ayşe Hafsa Sultan is the wife of Sultan Selim I and the mother of Sultan Suleiman I.

Hospice Ayşe Sultan

Kösem Sultan, also known as Mahpeyker, was the wife of the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed I (who bore the title Haseki) and the mother of Sultans Murad IV and Ibrahim I. During the reign of her sons, she bore the title Valide Sultan and was one of the most important figures in the Ottoman Empire.

Valide apartments in the palace

Bathroom Valide

Valide's bedroom

After 9 years, the concubine, who had never been elected by the Sultan, had the right to leave the harem. In this case, the Sultan found her a husband and gave her a dowry, she received a document stating that she was a free person.

However, the lowest layer of the harem also had its own hope for happiness. For example, only they had a chance for at least some kind of personal life. After several years of impeccable service and adoration in their eyes, a husband was found for them, or, having allocated funds for a comfortable life, they were released on all four sides.

Moreover, among the odalisques - outsiders of the harem society - there were also aristocrats. A slave could turn into a “gezde” - awarded a glance, if the Sultan somehow - with a look, gesture or word - singled her out from the general crowd. Thousands of women lived their whole lives in a harem, but they didn’t even see the Sultan naked, but they didn’t even wait for the honor of being “honored with a glance”

If the Sultan died, all the concubines were sorted by the gender of the children they had managed to give birth to. The girls’ mothers could easily get married, but the mothers of the “princes” settled in the “Old Palace”, from where they could leave only after the accession of the new Sultan. And at this moment the fun began. The brothers poisoned each other with enviable regularity and persistence. Their mothers also actively added poison to the food of their potential rivals and their sons.

In addition to the old, trusted slaves, the concubines were watched over by eunuchs. Translated from Greek, “eunuch” means “guardian of the bed.” They ended up in the harem exclusively in the form of guards, so to speak, to maintain order. There were two types of eunuchs. Some were castrated back in early childhood and they completely lacked secondary sexual characteristics - they did not grow a beard, had a high, boyish voice and a complete lack of perception of a woman as a member of the opposite sex. Others were castrated at a later age.

Partial eunuchs (that’s what those castrated not in childhood, but in adolescence were called) looked very much like men, had the most low masculine basque, sparse facial hair, broad muscular shoulders, and, oddly enough, sexual desire.

Of course, the eunuchs could not satisfy their needs naturally due to the lack of the necessary equipment for this. But as you understand, when it comes to sex or drinking, the flight of human imagination is simply limitless. And the odalisques, who lived for years with an obsessive dream of waiting for the Sultan’s gaze, were not particularly picky. Well, if there are 300-500 concubines in the harem, at least half of them are younger and more beautiful than you, what's the point of waiting for the prince? And in the absence of fish, even a eunuch is a man.

In addition to the fact that the eunuchs monitored order in the harem and at the same time (in secret from the Sultan, of course) consoled themselves and women yearning for male attention in every possible and impossible way, their duties also included the functions of executioners. They strangled those guilty of disobedience to the concubines with a silk cord or drowned the unfortunate woman in the Bosphorus.

The influence of the inhabitants of the harem on the sultans was used by envoys of foreign states. Thus, the Russian Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire M.I. Kutuzov, having arrived in Istanbul in September 1793, sent Valide Sultan Mihrishah gifts, and “the Sultan received this attention to his mother with sensitivity.”

Selim

Kutuzov received reciprocal gifts from the Sultan’s mother and a favorable reception from Selim III himself. The Russian ambassador strengthened Russia's influence in Turkey and persuaded it to join an alliance against revolutionary France.

Since the 19th century, after the abolition of slavery in the Ottoman Empire, all concubines began to enter the harem voluntarily and with the consent of their parents, hoping to achieve material well-being and a career. The harem of the Ottoman sultans was liquidated in 1908.

The harem, like the Topkapi Palace itself, is a real labyrinth, rooms, corridors, courtyards are all randomly scattered. This confusion can be divided into three parts: The premises of the black eunuchs The actual harem, where the wives and concubines lived The premises of the Valide Sultan and the padishah himself Our tour of the Harem of the Topkapi Palace was very brief.

The premises are dark and deserted, there is no furniture, there are bars on the windows. Cramped and narrow corridors. This is where the eunuchs lived, vindictive and vindictive because of psychological and physical injury... And they lived in the same ugly rooms, tiny, like closets, sometimes without windows at all. The impression is brightened only by the magical beauty and antiquity of the Iznik tiles, as if emitting a pale glow. We passed the stone courtyard of the concubines and looked at Valide's apartments.

It’s also cramped, all the beauty is in the green, turquoise, blue earthenware tiles. I ran my hand over them, touched the flower garlands on them - tulips, carnations, but the peacock’s tail... It was cold, and thoughts were spinning in my head that the rooms were poorly heated and the inhabitants of the harem probably often suffered from tuberculosis.

Moreover, this lack of direct sunlight... The imagination stubbornly refused to work. Instead of the splendor of the Seraglio, luxurious fountains, fragrant flowers, I saw closed spaces, cold walls, empty rooms, dark passages, strange niches in the walls, a strange fantasy world. The sense of direction and connection to the outside world was lost. I was stubbornly overcome by an aura of hopelessness and melancholy. Even the balconies and terraces in some rooms overlooking the sea and the fortress walls were not pleasing.

And finally, the reaction of official Istanbul to the sensational series “The Golden Age”

Turkish Prime Minister Erdogan believes that the television series about the court of Suleiman the Magnificent insults the greatness of the Ottoman Empire. However historical chronicles confirm that the palace has indeed fallen into complete decline.

All sorts of rumors often circulate around forbidden places. Moreover, the more secrecy they are shrouded in, the more fantastic assumptions mere mortals make about what is going on behind closed doors. This applies equally to the secret archives of the Vatican and the CIA caches. The harems of Muslim rulers are no exception.

So it is not surprising that one of them became the setting for a “soap opera” that became popular in many countries. The action of the series “The Magnificent Century” takes place in the Ottoman Empire XVI century, which at that time extended from Algeria to Sudan and from Belgrade to Iran. At its head was Suleiman the Magnificent, who ruled from 1520 to 1566, and in whose bedroom there was room for hundreds of barely dressed beauties. It is not surprising that 150 million television viewers in 22 countries were interested in this story.

Erdogan, in turn, focuses primarily on the glory and power of the Ottoman Empire, which reached its peak during the reign of Suleiman. Invented harem stories from that time, in his opinion, understate the greatness of the Sultan and thus the entire Turkish state.

But what does it mean in in this case distortion of history? Three Western historians spent a lot of time studying works on the history of the Ottoman Empire. The last of them was the Romanian researcher Nicolae Iorga (1871-1940), whose “History of the Ottoman Empire” also included previously published studies by the Austrian orientalist Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall and the German historian Johann Wilhelm Zinkeisen (Johann Wilhelm Zinkeisen).

Iorga devoted a lot of time to studying the events at the Ottoman court during the time of Suleiman and his heirs, for example, Selim II, who inherited the throne after the death of his father in 1566. “More like a monster than a man,” he spent most of his life drinking, which, by the way, was prohibited by the Koran, and his red face once again confirmed his addiction to alcohol.

The day had barely begun, and he, as a rule, was already drunk. To solving issues of national importance, he usually preferred entertainment, for which dwarfs, jesters, magicians or wrestlers were responsible, in which he occasionally shot with a bow. But if Selim’s endless feasts took place, apparently, without the participation of women, then under his heir Murad III, who ruled from 1574 to 1595 and lived for 20 years under Suleiman, everything was different.

“Women play an important role in this country,” wrote one French diplomat who had some experience in this sense in his homeland. “Since Murad spent all his time in the palace, his environment had a great influence on his weak spirit,” wrote Iorga. “With women, the Sultan was always obedient and weak-willed.”

Most of all, Murad’s mother and first wife took advantage of this, who were always accompanied by “many court ladies, intriguers and intermediaries,” wrote Iorga. “On the street they were followed by a cavalcade of 20 carts and a crowd of Janissaries. Being a very insightful person, she often influenced appointments at court. Because of her extravagance, Murad tried several times to send her to the old palace, but she remained a real mistress until her death.”

Ottoman princesses lived in “typical oriental luxury.” European diplomats tried to win their favor with exquisite gifts, because one note from the hands of one of them was enough to appoint one or another pasha. The careers of the young gentlemen who married them depended entirely on them. And those who dared to reject them lived in danger. Pasha “could easily have been strangled if he did not dare to take this dangerous step - to marry an Ottoman princess.”

While Murad was having fun in the company of beautiful slaves, “all the other people admitted to governing the empire made personal enrichment their goal - no matter by honest or dishonest means,” wrote Iorga. It is no coincidence that one of the chapters of his book is called “Causes of Collapse.” When you read it, you get the feeling that this is a script for a television series, such as, for example, “Rome” or “Boardwalk Empire”.

However, behind the endless orgies and intrigues in the palace and in the harem, important changes in life at court were hidden. Before Suleiman's accession to the throne, it was customary for the Sultan's sons, accompanied by their mother, to go to the provinces and remain aloof from the struggle for power. The prince who inherited the throne then, as a rule, killed all his brothers, which was in some ways not bad, because this way it was possible to avoid a bloody struggle over the Sultan’s inheritance.

Everything changed under Suleiman. After he not only had children with his concubine Roxolana, but also freed her from slavery and appointed her as his main wife, the princes remained in the palace in Istanbul. The first concubine who managed to rise to the position of the Sultan's wife did not know what shame and conscience were, and she shamelessly promoted her children up the career ladder. Numerous foreign diplomats wrote about the intrigues at court. Later, historians relied on their letters in their research.

The fact that Suleiman’s heirs abandoned the tradition of sending wives and princes further to the province also played a role. Therefore, the latter constantly interfered in political issues. “In addition to their participation in palace intrigues, their connections with the Janissaries stationed in the capital are worthy of mention,” wrote historian Surayya Farocki from Munich.

According to legend:
Roksolana failed to achieve the repeal of the law adopted in 1478 “On fratricide”. She fought this law all her life. However, on this issue, Suleiman the Magnificent, despite his boundless love for her, remained adamant. A ban on this law would allow Hurrem to strengthen her power in the palace, and she could actually be Valide Sultan all her life, maintaining power over the Empire in her hands. Suleiman disagreed with Hurrem on this issue, one of the few. As a result, Roksolana was unable to carry out all her plans; this was largely prevented by the early death of Alexandra Anastasia Lisowska. However, it was with Hurrem Sultan that the most destructive period in history for the empire began, which ultimately led to the collapse of the power - the Women's Sultanate. The women who appeared in the Sultan’s courtyard after Roksolana’s death were able to achieve a ban on the “Fatih law.” This ban is the only positive moment in this historical period. The Female Sultanate itself became a great evil for the Ottoman Empire, which destroyed the Empire.

Historical evidence:
There are many fictional stories and legends associated with the Fatih Law and the Women's Sultanate, these two historical concepts are so closely intertwined that it is very difficult to understand them. It’s even more complicated than with the reasons for the premature death of Shehzade, who died in 1553. To determine the truth, let’s turn to the background of the appearance of these two phenomena and consider each of them separately.

In 1478, he introduced the law “On Succession to the Throne”, the second more common name - the law “On Fratricide” is not official, but more accurately conveys the meaning of this law, which reads:
« Any person who dares to encroach on the Sultan's throne must be immediately executed. Even if my brother wants to take the throne».
Mehmed II introduced his law at the end of his reign. It was supposed to serve the heirs of Mehmed II as reliable protection from pretenders to the throne who were dissatisfied with the power of their opponents, primarily from the siblings and half-brothers of the ruling Sultan, who could openly oppose the padishah and start a rebellion. To prevent such unrest, the brothers were to be executed immediately after the new sultan ascended the throne, regardless of whether they encroached on the throne or not. This was very easy to do, since it was impossible to deny that at least once in their lives the legitimate shehzade did not think about the throne.

The theory that Roksolana made efforts to repeal this law appeared after the release in the late 1990s. on the screens of the popular Ukrainian television project “Roksolana”, in which many events were fictitious and not based on real ones historical facts, only the names of historical characters were preserved exactly. Of course, the position of Roksolana’s sons was very precarious, but scientists have not found a single piece of evidence that Hurrem Sultan opposed this law and wanted to get it banned.

The “Female Sultanate” or “Sultanate of Women,” on the contrary, is a very real historical period in the life of the Ottoman Empire. Many researchers do not act entirely correctly when they connect the activities of women of this period to abolish the “Fatih Law” with Hurrem Sultan, who allegedly also fought against this law. As a result, only on the basis of this assumption, Hurrem Sultan is considered a representative of the period of the “Women’s Sultanate”, which, according to the same researchers, should prove the detrimental influence of Haseki Hurrem on the fate of the Ottoman Empire. As for the “Women's Sultanate” itself, most historians consider this period destructive for the Empire and characterize it as a negative phenomenon.

These conclusions are extremely doubtful, since there are many real facts, which prove that Alexandra Anastasia Lisowska could not have become the first of the representatives of the “Women’s Sultanate”, who, rather, implemented the ban on the Fatih law than engaged in its formal abolition. So let's look at these facts:

Female Sultanate- a historical period in the life of the Ottoman Empire, which lasted a little more than a century. It is characterized by the transfer of actual power into the hands of the four mothers of the sultans, whose sons, the ruling padishahs, obeyed them unconditionally, making decisions on domestic, foreign policy, and national issues.

Historians still do not have a consensus on what date should be considered the beginning of the Women's Sultanate. Some researchers who want to make the first woman from the Women's Sultanate cite the date of its formation as 1541. True, it is not clear what these researchers are guided by when naming this particular date. Indeed, according to their theory, one could name, for example, 1521, in which Hurrem was given the title of Haseki, or 1534, in which Aishe Hafsa Sultan died and power over the harem completely passed to Hurrem, or 1553, in which Mustafa was executed. It is impossible to understand such researchers.

But the writer Danishmend Ismail Hani speaks about the Women's Sultanate:
« The stagnation (collapse) of the Ottoman Empire was caused by reasons that appeared in the days of its greatest prosperity. Once again, therefore, let me remind you that the Female Sultanate is not the cause of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, but its consequence».
This statement by Danishmend is quoted by many on the Internet and printed publications. However, even if we do not take into account that this writer often expresses ideas of a nationalistic nature and argues that only the indigenous Turks were able to make positive changes in the development of the Ottoman Empire, and the exaltation of Hurrem is only the only exception to this rule, Danishmend’s statement about the character of the Feminine The Sultanate can be considered erroneous and even meaningless, since it contains several obvious inaccuracies.

First of all, “stagnation” and “collapse” cannot be synonymous words, since they denote different phenomena in the life of the state. Almost a century and a half passed between the collapse and stagnation in the Ottoman Empire. Stagnation began in the empire after the end of the period of the Women's Sultanate, when the territorial and economic development of the country stopped. In addition, it is important to remember that all representatives of the Female Sultanate ruled very short term, they are also united by the fact that they all bore the title “Valide Sultan”. Danishmend, of course, does not dispute these obvious conclusions, although none of them can be applied to characterize Hurrem Sultan. She did not have time to become Valide, as she died 8 years earlier. It is simply impossible to call the reign of Suleiman I the collapse of the Empire, if you really call the Women's Sultanate a consequence of the collapse of the Empire.

If we also assume the theories put forward about the beginning of the Female Sultanate in 1541, then this will also include the 8-year period when she ruled the harem, serving in 1558-1566. Valide's responsibilities. However, none of the researchers of this period of history dares to call its time the Women’s Sultanate.

This suggests the conclusion that the correct date for the beginning of the Female Sultanate should be considered 1574, when Valide Sultan became. And it is Nurbana Sultan who should be considered the first representative of the historical period of the Ottoman Empire called the Female Sultanate. Nurbanu began leading the harem in 1566, but there is not a single piece of evidence that during this period she influenced the decision-making of the ruling sultan, her husband. Nurban managed to seize real power only during the reign of her son.
In the year of his accession to the throne, Murad III, which takes us to the original topic of our article, the “Fatih Law,” succumbed to the influence of Nurbanu’s mother and the Grand Vizier Mehmed Pasha Sokollu, who was an obedient executor of Nurbanu’s will, gave the order to execute all his half-brothers. Until this point, the Fatih law had not been used for 62 years. Murad III, explaining his decision, mentioned this particular law of 1478.

After 21 years, the son of Murad III, Mehmed III again uses this law and again this will be done at the insistence of the Sultan’s mother, already. Mehmed III executed 19 of his half-brothers in 1595. This year will go down in history as the bloodiest year of application of the Fatih law.

After Mehmed III on the throne will ascend, whose concubine will be the famous Kösem, in the future the powerful and cunning Valide Sultan. Ahmed I would introduce the practice of imprisoning the brothers of the ruling sultans in one of the palace pavilions, in the “Cafes” (translated as a cell), which, however, was not a repeal of the Fatih law.

And Kösem Sultan did not make any effort to introduce this practice, since she was able to interfere in the decisions of the sultans much later. By the way, the majority negative traits, which are attributed to Hurrem Sultan, were taken precisely from the image of Kösem. We will only mention that the ruling Sultan Murad IV, Kösem’s son who was left without heirs in 1640, will try to reintroduce the Fatih law by ordering the murder of his brother, Kösem’s other son, Ibrahim. However, Kösem, who had enormous power at that time, would prevent this, since otherwise the rule of the Ottoman dynasty would have ended, and the Ottomans ruled the Empire for 341 years.

To be fair, we note that the Fatih law was never officially repealed; it was in force until the beginning of the twentieth century, until the Ottoman Empire ceased to exist. It was last used in 1808, 121 years after the end of the period called the Female Sultanate (it ended in 1687, 4 years after the last powerful Valide Turhan Sultan died). In 1808, Sultan Mahmud II, who took the throne, would kill his brother Sultan Mustafa IV.

Regarding the influence of the Women's Sultanate on the development of the history of the Ottoman Empire, the following can be said: representatives of the Women's Sultanate indeed, albeit indirectly, contributed to the beginning of stagnation in the Ottoman Empire. Although the actions of the last of them, Turhan Sultan and Mehmed IV, her son, who lost in 1683 on September 11, led to this most of all Battle of Vienna. However, to call the Female Sultanate main reason The collapse of the Ottoman Empire is impossible. The common phrase “It began with Ukrainian, and ended with Ukrainian,” directly alluding to Roksolana Alexandra Anastasia Lisowska as the first representative of this period, is clearly inaccurate and erroneous.

Later, at the beginning of the 18th century. heirs began to ascend to the throne at a fairly mature age. Therefore, many of their mothers died before their sons became ruling sultans, or were so old that they could no longer fight for power and interfere in government issues. Therefore, by the middle of the 18th century, the Valides did not have much power at court and did not influence the ruling sultans; they no longer interfered in resolving any issues of the country.

As for other changes that began precisely during the period of the Women's Sultanate and continued to operate after its completion, the most important of them is the use of the practice of imprisoning the Sultan's brothers in Kafes instead of the Fatih law. Although this solution to the issue was more humane, it turned out to be not very useful for the empire. Heirs were no longer appointed to the post of provincial rulers, as a result of which many mediocre and cowardly governors and insolvent rulers appeared in the empire. In addition, during the period of the Women's Sultanate, Turhan Sultan contributed to the appointment of her son Mehmed Koprulu as Grand Vizier. This marked the beginning of a new period in the history of the Ottoman state, but this fact deserves a separate article.

For almost 400 years, the Ottoman Empire ruled the territory of modern Turkey, southeastern Europe and the Middle East. Today, interest in the history of this empire is greater than ever, but few know that the stop had many “dark” secrets that were hidden from prying eyes.

1. Fratricide

Early Ottoman sultans did not practice primogeniture, in which the eldest son inherits everything. As a result, there were often a number of brothers laying claim to the throne. In the first decades, it was not uncommon for some of the potential heirs to take refuge in enemy states and cause a lot of problems for many years.

When Mehmed the Conqueror was besieging Constantinople, his uncle fought against him from the walls of the city. Mehmed dealt with the problem with his usual ruthlessness. When he ascended the throne, he executed most of his male relatives, including even ordering his infant brother to be strangled in his cradle. He later issued his infamous law, which stated: " One of my sons who should inherit the Sultanate must kill his brothers"From that moment on, each new sultan had to take the throne by killing all his male relatives.

Mehmed III tore out his beard in grief when his younger brother begged him for mercy. But at the same time he “did not answer him a word,” and the boy was executed along with 18 other brothers. And Suleiman the Magnificent silently watched from behind a screen as his own son was strangled with a bowstring when he became too popular in the army and began to pose a danger to his power.

2. Cages for sekhzade

The policy of fratricide was never popular with the people and clergy, and when Ahmed I died suddenly in 1617, it was abandoned. Instead of killing all potential heirs to the throne, they began to be imprisoned in the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul in special rooms known as Kafes ("cages"). An Ottoman prince could spend his entire life imprisoned in Kafes, under constant guards. And although the heirs were, as a rule, kept in luxury, many shehzade (sons of the sultans) went crazy from boredom or became debauched drunkards. And this is understandable, because they understood that they could be executed at any moment.

3. The palace is like a quiet hell

Even for the Sultan, life in Topkapi Palace could be extremely gloomy. At that time, it was believed that it was indecent for the Sultan to talk too much, so a special form of sign language was introduced, and the ruler spent most of his time in complete silence.

Mustafa I considered that this was simply impossible to bear and tried to abolish such a rule, but his viziers refused to approve this ban. As a result, Mustafa soon went crazy. He often came to the seashore and threw coins into the water so that “at least the fish would spend them somewhere.”

The atmosphere in the palace was literally saturated with intrigue - everyone was fighting for power: viziers, courtiers and eunuchs. The women of the harem gained great influence and eventually this period of the empire became known as the "Sultanate of Women." Ahmet III once wrote to his grand vizier: " If I move from one room to another, then 40 people line up in the corridor, when I get dressed, then security is watching me... I can never be alone".

4. Gardener with executioner duties

The Ottoman rulers had complete power over the life and death of their subjects, and they used it without hesitation. Topkapi Palace, where petitioners and guests were received, was a terrifying place. It had two columns on which severed heads were placed, as well as a special fountain exclusively for the executioners so that they could wash their hands. During periodic cleansing of the palace from unwanted or guilty people, entire mounds of the tongues of victims were built in the courtyard.

Interestingly, the Ottomans did not bother to create a corps of executioners. These duties, oddly enough, were entrusted to the palace gardeners, who divided their time between killing and growing delicious flowers. Most victims were simply beheaded. But it was forbidden to shed the blood of the Sultan's family and high-ranking officials, so they were strangled. It was for this reason that the head gardener had always been a huge, muscular man, capable of quickly strangling anyone.

5. Death Race

For guilty officials there was the only way avoid the Sultan's wrath. Beginning in the late 18th century, a custom arose where a convicted grand vizier could escape his fate by defeating the head gardener in a race through the palace gardens. The vizier was called to a meeting with the head gardener and, after an exchange of greetings, he was presented with a cup of frozen sherbet. If the sherbet was white, then the Sultan granted the vizier a reprieve, and if it was red, he had to execute the vizier. As soon as the condemned man saw the red sherbet, he immediately had to run through the palace gardens between the shady cypress trees and rows of tulips. The goal was to reach the gate on the other side of the garden that led to the fish market.

The problem was one thing: the vizier was being pursued by the head gardener (who was always younger and stronger) with a silk cord. However, several viziers managed to do so, including Haci Salih Pasha, the last vizier who was the last to participate in such a deadly race. As a result, he became the sanjak bey (governor) of one of the provinces.

6. Scapegoats

Although grand viziers were theoretically second only to the sultan in power, they were typically executed or thrown into the crowd as a scapegoat whenever something went wrong. During the time of Selim the Terrible, so many great viziers changed that they began to always carry their wills with them. One vizier once asked Selim to let him know in advance if he was executed soon, to which the Sultan replied that a whole line of people had already lined up to replace him. The viziers also had to calm the people of Istanbul, who always, when they didn’t like something, came in a crowd to the palace and demanded execution.

7. Harem

Perhaps the most important attraction of the Topkapi Palace was the Sultan's harem. It consisted of up to 2,000 women, most of whom were purchased or kidnapped slaves. These wives and concubines of the Sultan were kept locked up, and any stranger who saw them was executed on the spot.

The harem itself was guarded and controlled by the chief eunuch, who because of had enormous power. Today there is little information about living conditions in a harem. It is known that there were so many concubines that some of them almost never caught the eye of the Sultan. Others managed to gain such enormous influence over him that they took part in the decision political issues.

So, Suleiman the Magnificent fell madly in love with the Ukrainian beauty Roksolana (1505-1558), married her and made her his main adviser. Roxolana's influence on imperial politics was such that the Grand Vizier sent the pirate Barbarossa on a desperate mission to kidnap the Italian beauty Giulia Gonzaga (Countess of Fondi and Duchess of Traetto) in the hope that Suleiman would take notice of her when she was brought into the harem. The plan ultimately failed, and Julia was never kidnapped.

Another lady - Kesem Sultan (1590-1651) - achieved even greater influence than Roksolana. She ruled the empire as regent in place of her son and later grandson.

8. Blood tribute

One of the most famous features of early Ottoman rule was the devşirme ("blood tribute"), a tax levied on the non-Muslim population of the empire. This tax consisted of the forced recruitment of young boys from Christian families. Most boys were recruited into the Janissary Corps, an army of slave soldiers who were always used in the first line of Ottoman conquests. This tribute was collected irregularly, usually resorting to devshirma when the sultan and viziers decided that the empire might need additional manpower and warriors. As a rule, boys aged 12-14 years were recruited from Greece and the Balkans, and the strongest were taken (on average, 1 boy per 40 families).

Ottoman officials gathered the recruited boys together and took them to Istanbul, where they were entered into the register (with detailed description, in case someone escaped), were circumcised and forcibly converted to Islam. The most beautiful or intelligent ones were sent to the palace, where they were trained. These guys could achieve very high ranks and many of them eventually became pashas or viziers. The remaining boys were initially sent to work on farms for eight years, where the children simultaneously learned Turkish and developed physically.

By the age of twenty, they officially became Janissaries, the elite soldiers of the empire, renowned for their iron discipline and loyalty. The blood tribute system became obsolete in the early 18th century, when the children of the Janissaries were allowed to join the corps, which thus became self-sustaining.

9. Slavery as a tradition

Although devshirme (slavery) was gradually abandoned during the 17th century, the phenomenon continued to exist. key feature Ottoman system until the end of the 19th century. Most slaves were imported from Africa or the Caucasus (the Adyghe were especially valued), while Crimean Tatar raids provided a constant influx of Russians, Ukrainians and Poles.

It was originally forbidden to enslave Muslims, but this rule was quietly forgotten when the supply of non-Muslims began to dry up. Islamic slavery developed largely independently from Western slavery and therefore had a number of significant differences. For example, it was somewhat easier for Ottoman slaves to gain freedom or achieve some kind of influence in society. But there is no doubt that Ottoman slavery was incredibly cruel.

Millions of people died during slave raids or from backbreaking work. And that's not even mentioning the castration process that was used to fill the ranks of eunuchs. The mortality rate among slaves is illustrated by the fact that the Ottomans imported millions of slaves from Africa, while very few people of African descent remained in modern Turkey.

10. Massacres

With all of the above, we can say that the Ottomans were a fairly loyal empire. Apart from devshirme, they made no real attempts to convert non-Muslim subjects. They accepted Jews after they were expelled from Spain. They never discriminated against their subjects, and the empire was often ruled (we are talking about officials) by Albanians and Greeks. But when the Turks felt threatened, they acted very cruelly.

Selim the Terrible, for example, was very alarmed by the Shiites, who denied his authority as a defender of Islam and could be "double agents" for Persia. As a result, he massacred almost the entire east of the empire (at least 40,000 Shiites were killed and their villages were razed to the ground). When the Greeks first began to seek independence, the Ottomans resorted to the help of Albanian partisans, who carried out a series of terrible pogroms.

As the empire's influence declined, it lost much of its former tolerance for minorities. By the 19th century, massacres became much more common. This reached its climax in 1915, when the empire, just two years before its collapse, massacred 75 percent of the entire Armenian population (about 1.5 million people).

Continuing the Turkish theme, for our readers.

In this article we will describe in detail Female Sultanate We will talk about its representatives and their reign, about assessments of this period in history.

Before examining the Women's Sultanate in detail, let's say a few words about the state itself in which it was observed. This is necessary to fit the period of interest to us into the context of history.

The Ottoman Empire is otherwise called the Ottoman Empire. It was founded in 1299. It was then that Osman I Ghazi, who became the first Sultan, declared the territory of a small state independent from the Seljuks. However, some sources report that the title of Sultan was first officially accepted only by Murad I, his grandson.

Rise of the Ottoman Empire

The reign of Suleiman I the Magnificent (from 1521 to 1566) is considered the heyday of the Ottoman Empire. A portrait of this sultan is presented above. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman state was one of the most powerful in the world. The territory of the empire by 1566 included lands located from the Persian city of Baghdad in the east and Hungarian Budapest in the north to Mecca in the south and Algeria in the west. The influence of this state in the region began to gradually increase from the 17th century. The Empire finally collapsed after losing the First World War.

The role of women in government

For 623 years, the Ottoman dynasty ruled the country's lands, from 1299 to 1922, when the monarchy ceased to exist. Women in the empire we are interested in, unlike the monarchies of Europe, were not allowed to govern the state. However, this situation existed in all Islamic countries.

However, in the history of the Ottoman Empire there is a period called the Women's Sultanate. At this time, representatives of the fair sex actively participated in government. Many famous historians tried to understand what a sultanate of women is, to comprehend its role. We invite you to take a closer look at this interesting period in history.

The term "Female Sultanate"

This term was first proposed to be used in 1916 by Ahmet Refik Altynay, a Turkish historian. It appears in the book of this scientist. His work is called “Women’s Sultanate”. And in our time, debates continue about the impact this period had on the development of the Ottoman Empire. There is disagreement as to what is the main reason for this phenomenon, which is so unusual in the Islamic world. Scientists also argue about who should be considered the first representative of the Women's Sultanate.

Causes

Some historians believe that this period was generated by the end of the campaigns. It is known that the system of conquering lands and obtaining military spoils was based precisely on them. Other scholars believe that the Sultanate of Women in the Ottoman Empire arose due to the struggle to repeal the Law of Succession issued by Fatih. According to this law, all the Sultan's brothers must be executed after ascending to the throne. It didn't matter what their intentions were. Historians who adhere to this opinion consider Hurrem Sultan to be the first representative of the Women's Sultanate.

Khurem Sultan

This woman (her portrait is presented above) was the wife of Suleiman I. It was she who in 1521, for the first time in the history of the state, began to bear the title “Haseki Sultan”. Translated, this phrase means “most beloved wife.”

Let's tell you more about Hurrem Sultan, with whose name the Women's Sultanate in Turkey is often associated. Her real name is Lisovskaya Alexandra (Anastasia). In Europe, this woman is known as Roksolana. She was born in 1505 in Western Ukraine (Rohatina). In 1520, Hurrem Sultan came to the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul. Here Suleiman I, the Turkish Sultan, gave Alexandra a new name - Hurrem. This is the word with Arabic can be translated as “bringing joy.” Suleiman I, as we have already said, bestowed on this woman the title “Haseki Sultan”. Alexandra Lisovskaya received great power. It became even stronger in 1534, when the Sultan's mother died. From that time on, Alexandra Anastasia Lisowska began to manage the harem.

It should be noted that this woman was very educated for her time. She owned several foreign languages, so she responded to letters from influential nobles, foreign rulers and artists. In addition, Hurrem Haseki Sultan received foreign ambassadors. Alexandra Anastasia Lisowska was actually a political adviser to Suleiman I. Her husband spent a significant part of his time on campaigns, so she often had to take on his responsibilities.

Ambiguity in assessing the role of Hurrem Sultan

Not all scholars agree that this woman should be considered a representative of the Women's Sultanate. One of the main arguments they present is that each of the representatives of this period in history was characterized by the following two points: the short reign of the sultans and the presence of the title “valide” (mother of the sultan). None of them refer to Hurrem. She did not live eight years to receive the title "valide". Moreover, it would be simply absurd to believe that the reign of Sultan Suleiman I was short, because he ruled for 46 years. However, it would be wrong to call his reign a “decline.” But the period we are interested in is considered to be a consequence of precisely the “decline” of the empire. It was the poor state of affairs in the state that gave birth to the Women's Sultanate in the Ottoman Empire.

Mihrimah replaced the deceased Hurrem (her grave is pictured above), becoming the leader of the Topkapi harem. It is also believed that this woman influenced her brother. However, she cannot be called a representative of the Women's Sultanate.

And who can rightfully be included among them? We present to your attention a list of rulers.

Women's Sultanate of the Ottoman Empire: list of representatives

For the reasons mentioned above, the majority of historians believe that there were only four representatives.

The first of them is Nurbanu Sultan (years of life - 1525-1583). She was Venetian by origin, the name of this woman was Cecilia Venier-Baffo.
The second representative is Safiye Sultan (about 1550 - 1603). She is also a Venetian whose real name is Sofia Baffo.
The third representative is Kesem Sultan (years of life - 1589 - 1651). Her origins are not known for sure, but she was presumably a Greek woman, Anastasia.
And the last, fourth representative is Turkhan Sultan (years of life - 1627-1683). This woman is a Ukrainian named Nadezhda.

Turhan Sultan and Kesem Sultan

When the Ukrainian Nadezhda turned 12 years old, the Crimean Tatars captured her. They sold her to Ker Suleiman Pasha. He, in turn, resold the woman to Valide Kesem, the mother of Ibrahim I, a mentally disabled ruler. There is a film called "Mahpaker", which tells about the life of this sultan and his mother, who was actually at the head of the empire. She had to manage all the affairs as Ibrahim I was mentally retarded and therefore could not perform his duties properly.

This ruler ascended the throne in 1640, at the age of 25. Such an important event for the state occurred after the death of Murad IV, his elder brother (for whom Kesem Sultan also ruled the country in the early years). Murad IV was the last sultan of the Ottoman dynasty. Therefore, Kesem was forced to solve the problems of further rule.

Question of succession to the throne

It would seem that getting an heir if you have a large harem is not at all difficult. However, there was one catch. It was that the weak-minded Sultan had an unusual taste and his own ideas about female beauty. Ibrahim I (his portrait is presented above) preferred very fat women. Chronicle records of those years have been preserved, which mention one concubine he liked. Her weight was about 150 kg. From this we can assume that Turhan, which his mother gave to her son, also had considerable weight. Perhaps that's why Kesem bought it.

Fight of two Valides

It is unknown how many children were born to Ukrainian Nadezhda. But it is known that it was she who was the first of the other concubines to give him a son, Mehmed. This happened in January 1642. Mehmed was recognized as the heir to the throne. After the death of Ibrahim I, who died as a result of the coup, he became the new sultan. However, by this time he was only 6 years old. Turhan, his mother, was legally required to receive the title "valide", which would have elevated her to the pinnacle of power. However, everything did not turn out in her favor. Her mother-in-law, Kesem Sultan, did not want to give in to her. She achieved what no other woman could do. She became Valide Sultan for the third time. This woman was the only one in history who had this title under the reigning grandson.

But the fact of her reign haunted Turkhan. In the palace for three years (from 1648 to 1651), scandals flared up and intrigues were woven. In September 1651, 62-year-old Kesem was found strangled. She gave her place to Turhan.

End of the Women's Sultanate

So, according to most historians, the start date of the Women's Sultanate is 1574. It was then that Nurban Sultan was given the title of Valida. The period of interest to us ended in 1687, after the accession to the throne of Sultan Suleiman II. Already in adulthood, he received supreme power, 4 years after Turhan Sultan, who became the last influential Valide, died.

This woman died in 1683, at the age of 55-56 years. Her remains were buried in a tomb in a mosque that she had completed. However, not 1683, but 1687 is considered the official end date of the period of the Women's Sultanate. It was then that at the age of 45 he was overthrown from the throne. This happened as a result of a conspiracy that was organized by Koprulu, the son of the Grand Vizier. Thus ended the sultanate of women. Mehmed spent another 5 years in prison and died in 1693.

Why has the role of women in governing the country increased?

Among the main reasons why the role of women in government has increased, several can be identified. One of them is the love of the sultans for the fair sex. Another is the influence that their mother had on the sons. Another reason is that the sultans were incapacitated at the time of their accession to the throne. One can also note the deceit and intrigue of women and the usual coincidence of circumstances. Another important factor is that the grand viziers changed frequently. Their duration of office in the early 17th century averaged just over a year. This naturally contributed to chaos and political fragmentation in the empire.

Beginning in the 18th century, sultans began to ascend the throne at a fairly mature age. The mothers of many of them died before their children became rulers. Others were so old that they were no longer able to fight for power and participate in solving important state issues. It can be said that by the middle of the 18th century, valides no longer played a special role at court. They did not participate in government.

Estimates of the Women's Sultanate period

The female sultanate in the Ottoman Empire is assessed very ambiguously. Representatives of the fair sex, who were once slaves and were able to rise to the status of valide, were often not prepared to conduct political affairs. In their selection of candidates and their appointment to important positions, they relied mainly on the advice of those close to them. The choice was often based not on the abilities of certain individuals or their loyalty to the ruling dynasty, but on their ethnic loyalty.

On the other hand, the Women's Sultanate in the Ottoman Empire had both positive sides. Thanks to him, it was possible to maintain the monarchical order characteristic of this state. It was based on the fact that all sultans should be from the same dynasty. The incompetence or personal shortcomings of rulers (such as the cruel Sultan Murad IV, whose portrait is shown above, or the mentally ill Ibrahim I) were compensated by the influence and power of their mothers or women. However, one cannot fail to take into account that the actions of women carried out during this period contributed to the stagnation of the empire. This applies to a greater extent to Turhan Sultan. Mehmed IV, her son, lost the Battle of Vienna on September 11, 1683.

Finally

In general, we can say that in our time there is no unambiguous and generally accepted historical assessment of the influence that the Women's Sultanate had on the development of the empire. Some scholars believe that the rule of the fair sex pushed the state to its death. Others believe that it was more a consequence than a cause of the country's decline. However, one thing is clear: the women of the Ottoman Empire had much less influence and were much further from absolutism than their modern rulers in Europe (for example, Elizabeth I and Catherine II).