Abstract sources of geographical information. Geographic map. Ways to display objects on a map

Geographical maps can be classified according to various criteria.

On thematic maps, only one or several phenomena are displayed in detail. Examples of thematic maps: vegetation map, climate map, geological map, soil map, political map, etc.

Geographic maps depict with equal detail both natural objects and phenomena (topography, rivers, lakes, vegetation), and socio-economic (settlements, roads, industrial enterprises). The names are signed on them: oceans, rivers, seas, bays, straits, lakes, rivers; continents, islands, capes; plains, mountains, ranges; settlements, etc. The names of settlements are displayed to the right of the symbol, parallel to the southern frame or along the closest parallel. The names of the rivers are placed in the middle of the channel or along its axis, and the seas, islands and states - inside the contours, located in the direction of greater length.

Fig. Map Classification

Cards also distinguish   by area coverage.   The classification of maps according to the size of the territory depicted on them includes the following groups: 1) maps of the starry sky; 2) maps of planets and the Earth; 3) hemisphere maps; 4) maps of continents and oceans; 5) maps of the seas, bays, straits; 6) maps of countries; 7) maps of large natural regions; 8) maps of republics, territories, regions, administrative regions; 9) city maps; 10) maps of urban areas.

There is a classification of cards   by appointmenttaking into account the diversity of spheres of human activity. For example, scientific reference cards are intended to carry out scientific research and obtain reference information, tourist maps - to obtain information about interesting terrain objects, cafes, hotels, technical maps - to solve engineering problems. Curricula - the main visual aid in the study of geography, as well as economics, history and other academic disciplines.

Subdivide cards into groups and   in scale. There are small-scale maps with a scale smaller than 1: 1 000 000, designed to study large areas, medium-sized maps with a scale of 1: 200 000 to 1: 1 000 000 and large-scale maps with a scale of 1: 200 000 and larger.

Large-scale maps are topographic maps.

Remind you that in content   cards can be:

• general geographical;
• thematic.

Thematic cards

Vegetation maps, for example, depict the distribution and composition of vegetation from different territories. There are also maps of minerals, maps of forests, terrain maps, synoptic maps, industrial maps showing large cities - industrial centers and their specialization. All these maps characterize geographical objects and phenomena on a certain topic: vegetation, relief, industry. That is why they are called thematic. For example, a political map will first of all give an idea of \u200b\u200bthe location of countries and their borders.

General geographic maps

General geographic maps display various elements of the earth's surface - relief, vegetation, rivers, settlements, transport network, etc. For example, a physical map of Russia.

By area coverage   distinguish maps of the world, individual continents, countries and their parts (regions).

A political map of the World

A political map of the World   - One of the most important cartographic sources in the course of world geography, since this cargo shows different countries, their capitals, communication lines and other useful information.

Let's look at the political map. In addition to the borders of states, on the political map you see the largest cities and capitals of countries, communication lines and seaports, the largest hydrographic objects (seas, rivers, lakes, bays, straits). Some other geographic features, such as terrain, may also be shown.

On the political hag of the world you will find more than 230 countries and territories.

The borders of the state take quite a while. They can change for various reasons: historical, political, economic, cultural, natural.

In order to know the political map of the world or individual continents and their parts, you must constantly turn to it, train in determining the geographic location of certain countries or regions, and monitor changes in the world.

The most difficult is the political map of Western Europe. Let us together with you determine the geographical position of the countries of this region (Table 1).

Table 1. Countries of Western Europe

		Population (2007)	Capital (s)
	84 thousand km 2	8.3 million people
		70 thousand people	Andorra la Vieja
	30.5 thousand km 2	10.6 million people	Brussels
		1 thousand people
Great Britain	244 thousand km 2	61 million people
Germany	356 thousand km 2	82.3 million people	Bonn, Berlin
	132.0 thousand km 2	11.2 million people
	43 thousand km 2	5.5 million people	Copenhagen
Ireland	70 thousand km 2	4.4 million people
Iceland	103 thousand km 2	290 thousand people	Reykjavik
	504 thousand km 2	45.3 million people
	301 thousand km 2	59.3 million people
Liechtenstein (Principality of Liechtenstein)		34 thousand people
Luxembourg (Grand Duchy of Luxembourg)	2.6 thousand km 2	463 thousand people	Luxembourg
		397 thousand people	Valletta
		33 thousand people
Netherlands	41 thousand km 2	16.4 million people	Amsterdam
Norway	324 thousand km 2	4.7 million people
Portugal	92 thousand km 2	10.7 million people	Lisbon
San marino		28 thousand people	San marino
Finland	337 thousand km 2	5.3 million people		552 thousand km 2	61.7 million people
Switzerland	41 thousand km 2	7.5 million people
	450 thousand km 2	9.1 million people	Stockholm

Time Zone Map   - an interesting, and most importantly, useful map (Fig. I).

For the convenience of timing, the entire surface of the Earth was divided into   24 time zones.   The time of each time zone differs from the subsequent one hour. Belts are numbered from 0 to 23 from west to east of   Greenwich Meridian.   In all points within the same belt, the same thing is considered   standard time.   Moscow, for example, is in the second time zone.

However, we live in Moscow not according to the time zone, but according to   maternity time   (from lat. decretum - decree, decree). In addition, you know that in Russia, the clock hands are moved forward (summer time) or back (winter time) by one hour in order to most efficiently use the light part of the day and save energy. Therefore, Moscow, being in the 2nd time zone, practically lives on the time of the 3rd time zone. In other words, when Moscow is 13 hours (Moscow time), then in Paris it is 11 hours (Central European time), and in London it is 10 hours (Greenwich time).

Fig. 1. World Time Zone Map

Look at the time zone hag. Time zone boundaries are not drawn exactly along the meridians. For convenience, the borders of states, regions, states and other administrative-territorial entities within the same country are taken into account. In Russia, for example, the 11th and 12th time zones are combined into one.

And air transport, telephone and telegraph communications in the country works, as a rule, according to a single time. In Russia, for example, Moscow time.

If you carefully look at the map of time zones, you will notice how remarkable the 180th meridian is. The conditional   date line   Its zigzag in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Chukchi Peninsula is not accidental. The fact is that on both sides of this line the hours and minutes coincide, and the calendar dates differ by one day. If the date line crossed Chukotka, its residents would have to keep their own calendar, one day ahead of the national one.

If you ever decide to take a trip around the world and go east from Cape Dezhnev, crossing the line of change of dates, do not forget to count the same day twice. Conversely, moving from east to west, skip one day.

Statistical materials are one of the main sources of geographic information.

  - this is a science that studies the totality of mass phenomena in order to take into account and identify patterns of their development using quantitative (statistical) indicators. The population is just such a mass phenomenon. Statistical indicators include absolute and relative values, as well as various coefficients.

Absolute values   are informative and show the size of geographical phenomena. For example, Russia has the largest territory in the world - more than 17 million km 2, which is almost double the territory of countries such as China,   USAor Canada. However, in terms of population, Russia is inferior to many countries. In 2007, the total population was 142 million people. - eighth in the world.

Table 2. Population of the largest countries in the world (million people)

Relative value   expresses the result of comparison (comparison) of statistical indicators with each other. They allow you to detect certain changes in geographical phenomena, their tendency.

Coefficients - indicators that reflect the characteristic features of individual phenomena, for example, the coefficient of specialization or natural population growth.

In order to learn how to work with statistical materials, you must first of all imagine how they are organized and built (ordered).

Statistical Table It is a system of vertical and horizontal graphs (columns and rows), equipped with headers and filled in a certain order with digital data. It contains the statistical data necessary to characterize the studied geographical phenomenon and its components. The headings of the horizontal rows of the statistical table correspond to the statistical “subject”, and the upper headings of its vertical columns correspond to the statistical “predicate”.

Let's look at, for example, the statistical table. 3 "Change in the share of economic regions in the population of Russia according to the censuses of 1926-2002."

Table 3. Change in the share of economic regions in the population of Russia by census 1926-2002 p.,%

Russian Federation, including areas:
Northern
Northwestern
Central
Volgo-Vyatka
Central Black Earth
Volga region
North Caucasian
Ural
West Siberian
East Siberian
Far Eastern
Kaliningrad region

The statistical subject lists those parts and groups of the phenomenon being studied that are quantitatively characterized in the predicate. In this case, these are the economic regions of Russia. In a predicate table, the magnitude of the phenomenon under study is given — the share of the population living in the economic regions of the Russian Federation for a number of years.

Thus, any statistical table includes three required elements:

• general table heading;
• statistical subject;
• statistical predicate.

Statistical materials can be presented not only in statistical tables, but also in visual form: in charts, graphs, maps, cartographic diagrams.

Statistical Maps   - This is primarily cartograms and cartograms. Let us with you, using the table. 4, we compose on a contour map a cartogram showing the population density of the economic regions of Russia:

• write down the name of the cartogram ("Density of the population of the economic regions of Russia");
• write out the name of the source, on the basis of which we will build a cartogram (statistical table "Population density of economic regions of Russia");
• we write out the relative statistical indicators that we will depict, having first rounded their values \u200b\u200bto integers;
• we divide the indicators into groups according to the principle of equal intervals. The easiest way to break down is to divide the difference between the largest (63) and smallest value (1) of the indicator by 5. In our case (63 - 1 \u003d 62 “60: 5 \u003d 12), the interval will be 12, and the groups of indicators will be as follows: 1 to 12; 12-24; 24-36; 36-48; 48-60 and more than 60 people / km 2;
• we draw up the legend of cartogram in a notebook, where darker tones of color (or thicker hatching) represent a greater intensity of the phenomenon; light shades (or rare shading) - smaller. For a color image, it is better to take the shades of one paint: from lighter to darker;
• show on the contour map the borders of the economic regions of Russia;
• we will transfer the legend of the cartogram to the contour map in “Symbols”;
• let's execute the cartogram.

Graphing and charting   based on statistical indicators has a mathematical basis, which is well known to you.

Based on their graphs, we can conclude that until the 90s. XX century in the resettlement of the population of Russia, the historical tendency to develop new lands and the Russian outskirts continued.

Since the 1990s there is an inverse trend of population decline in the northern and eastern regions of Russia, primarily the Far East and North.

Charts   show the volume and structure of geographical phenomena. They can be circular, point, linear, area, volume, etc. (Fig. 2). Recall that in the construction   pie charts   the initial radius is the one directed upward on the sheet of paper, that is, the “northern” one. It is from him that indicators (from the calculation of I% \u003d 3.6 deg.) That characterize a geographical phenomenon, for example, the distribution of the Earth's population depending on the proximity of the seas, are postponed clockwise.

Fig. 2. The distribution of the Earth's population depending on the proximity of the coast of the seas and oceans

The scale of the chart depends on: a) the size of the sheet; b) the value of the initial indicators; c) the difference between the highest and lowest values \u200b\u200bof indicators; d) the number of chart characters.

To determine the scale   bar chart for example, you must first establish what the largest and smallest columns can be. The base of the diagram is determined by the formula X \u003d A: M, where X is the base of the diagram; A is the statistical indicator used by us; M - the basis of scale, which shows how many units of this indicator are in 1 square. mm area chart. It is composed as follows. First, an axial line is drawn - the base of the diagram, and then perpendiculars are restored taking into account the scale.

Mapping a chart   on a contour map it comes down to building diagrams within the boundaries of a certain territory, for example, within the borders of large regions of Russia, economic regions, and constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

Age and Age Pyramid   allows you to visually analyze the sex ratio by age groups. It is constructed as follows. On the vertical axis, at equal intervals, the age is plotted (in the form of age intervals; for example, 0-5, 5-10, 10-15, etc.), and on the horizontal axis - to the left - the number (or proportion) of men, and to the right - women (on the same scale). For each age group, they build their own linear diagram and, as it were, “string” them one after the other from the bottom up - from the base of the pyramid to its top (Fig. 3). By the shape of such a pyramid, it is possible to determine the characteristics of the age structure of the population, to reveal the characteristics of the sex ratio in different age groups. The quantitative data read from sex-age pyramids on the ratio of sexes and age groups of the population can be used for further calculations of generalizing demographic indicators (for example, population demographic load factors), their analysis and comparison.

Fig. 3. Age and gender pyramids

The question arises, how to update statistical materials, because they will soon become obsolete. To do this, there are statistical collections, reference books, periodicals, Internet resources.

Geographic information systems as a means of obtaining, processing and presenting geographical information

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)   - This is a computer database that stores geo-information in the form of maps of various contents, digital and textual information on objects marked on these maps. Information can be presented on the monitor screen and in the form of printouts of any scale, tables, graphs, charts for any of the information blocks.

According to spatial coverage distinguish between global, national, regional, local and urban GIS. By appointment, they are divided into resource cadastral, land, environmental, geological, marine, educational, etc.

Thus, geographic information systems (GIS) are special systems capable of collecting, organizing, storing, processing, evaluating, displaying and disseminating data at a new technical level and obtain new geographical information on this basis. It is very effective, for example, to use educational GIS when comparing thematic maps of various contents to the same territory, whether it be a country or region; in establishing various geographical relationships.

We draw your particular attention to   Internet features and resources,   which can be used by you in the course learning process. They include:

• educational resources WWW (World Wide Web);
• E-mail (email);
• newsgroups.

Educational resources of the World Wide Web can be useful:

• to search for additional and updated (including statistical) information for lessons in the preparation process;
• to search for information in the process of preparing various kinds of creative works (reports, essays, business games, training conferences, etc.).

Email can be used:

• for the exchange of educational creative work with their peers from other schools, regions of our country;
• for the mutual exchange of information in the process of solving the problems of distance learning and telecommunication projects.

Teleconferences can be useful:

• with participation in various kinds of educational and informative telecommunication projects.

Key concepts and terms on the topic:economic and social geography of the world, geographical information system, geographical map, cartographic generalization, statistics, GPS (Global Positional System).

Topic Plan (list of questions required to study):

1. Geography as a science.

2. Traditional and new methods of geographical research.

3. A geographical map is a special source of geographical information.

4. Statistical materials as a source of geographic information.

5. Other methods and forms of obtaining geographic information.

Geographic Information Systems

Summary of theoretical issues:

1. Geography is a spatial discipline. This means that geographers are interested not only in the objects themselves, but also in how, where, and why these objects are placed in space. Economic and social geography of the world   - This is a social geographic science that studies the territorial organization of human society.

2. Obtaining geographic information is of real practical importance. The world around us today is permeated by a huge number of information, transport, social and economic ties, ignorance of which inevitably leads to your own isolation. Modern young professionals, getting into the global political or economic environment, should have a set of knowledge about the countries of the world, their culture and lifestyle. Geography uses different research methods: traditional   - cartographic, sociological, statistical, mathematical historical, comparative, modern   - aerospace, geoinformation, geographic forecast, etc.

3. Maps are the main toolkit of a geographer. Maps exist for each type of information relating to our planet (and not only). Geographic map (first city was created in Ancient Greece about 2500 years ago by the scientist Anaximander) -a reduced mathematically defined, generalized, figurative and iconic image of the Earth's surface on a plane, showing the location, condition and interconnections of natural and social phenomena. With a decrease in scale, a generalization is made of the objects mapped onto the map, their qualitative and quantitative characteristics.

It helps here cartographic generalization   - selection and generalization of objects and phenomena displayed on the map according to the purpose and scale of the map. For the image of various objects on the map, a variety of cartographic image methods are used: methods of high-quality background, ranges, motion signs, contours, localized diagrams, icons, dot. According to the content of the card are divided into: general geographic   and thematic.

The first includes topographic maps (M 1: 200,000 and larger), survey and topographic maps (M from 1: 200,000 to 1: 1,000,000), and survey (M smaller than 1: 1,000,000). Geographic maps show all elements of topographic content ( settlements, separate buildings, roads, industrial, agricultural and socio-cultural objects, hydrography, relief, vegetation, etc..), i.e. all that "lies" on the ground and can serve as a guide.

Unlike general geographic maps, thematic maps usually reveal one plot (soil, geological structure, population, vegetation, etc.). All thematic maps are divided into two sections - maps of nature (physical-geographical, geological, climatic, etc.) and maps of social phenomena (political, population, historical, economic, etc.).

4. Statistical materials are one of the main sources of geographic information. Statistics- This is a science that studies various phenomena and processes in order to take into account and identify patterns of their development using statistical indicators. In the course of geographical research, statistics solves the following scientific problems: collection of statistical data, processing of collected information, analysis and interpretation of data, presentation of statistical information in text, tabular, graphical or cartographic form. Statistical information includes absolute and relative values, as well as various coefficients.

5. Modern sources of geographic information also include aerospace and geoinformation sources: aerial photography, satellite imagery, remote sensing, satellite monitoring. A modern satellite system for high-precision determination of the coordinates of static and moving objects is called GPS   (Global Positional System).

It is developed by the US Department of Defense. The project was launched in 1978, and the final commissioning of GPS took place in 1995. A fundamentally new approach to working with spatial data is associated with the emergence Geographic Information Systems10 (GIS)   - a hardware system for collecting, storing and processing spatial data. We can say that GIS is a complex computer program. GIS features: a quick search for the necessary information, the cartographic ability of a GIS, the ability to model phenomena on the earth's surface.

Earlier, in the days of my school youth, I thought that only a textbook, map, and geography teacher were geographic sources. But, with the development of technology and the desire to leave the Earth without "white spots", man has created many quick and easy ways to study the planet. Many sources of information tend to be obsolete, and people need to take care of updating them.

Major geographical sources

Geography, as a science common to all mankind, also involves a standard set of sources:

• The map is the oldest source of geoinformation.
• Experimental research - the practical study of the planet by man through travel and expeditions.
• Geoinformatics - the use of high technology (satellite images, the creation of computer models).
• Museums and storage - a way to save and replenish the received geo-information and objects.

The development trend of computer technology involves a gradual departure from cards on material (paper) media due to their constant obsolescence property. For example, a map of the Amazon river basin can be safely thrown away after 50 years - so quickly it changes the relief of the territories through which it flows.

The role of geographic sources

Their main role is to preserve and increase geographic knowledge, as well as informing people about them. Science cannot do without accumulating sources that will allow people to use the acquired knowledge both economically (construction, mining) and for personal needs (travel arrangements). Oddly enough, we use geoinformation sources almost daily. The simplest example is the GPS navigator.

It is he who helps us find a street in a large city and build a route to it. Another commonly used source will be space weather satellites. If before, to find out the weather, we looked at the thermometer outside the window, now we get this information from the Internet, where it gets from weather satellites, of course, after its processing in the Hydrometeorological Center.

Lesson number 1

Topic: Introduction Sources of geographic information.

Study Questions

1. Economic and social geography as a science.

2. Traditional and new methods of geographical research.

3. Types of geographical information, its role and use in people's lives.

5. A geographical map is a special source of information about reality. Statistical materials. Other methods and forms of obtaining geographical information: the use of satellite images, modeling.

1. Economic and social geography as a science, its place in the system of geographical sciences.

Geography is one of the oldest sciences on Earth and takes pride of place among your favorite school subjects. The course of economic and social geography of the world is the final stage in the study of geography as part of the school curriculum. The subject of study of economic and social geography is the study of economic development and population distribution in the world as a whole, in individual regions and countries. Economic geography combines the elements of geography, economics and sociology, it widely uses not only economic, but also sociological research methods. You know that sociology is the science of society and the behavior of people, and economic and social inequality are closely interrelated, therefore, you can not consider the economy without people - the main productive force, without the human factor. Thus, putting a person in the spotlight, economic geography intermarried with social geography. The main direction of the current stage of development is the strengthening of the social, political, environmental focus of research. The main direction is the rational use and transformation of the natural environment. The long development of geography has led to a deepening of its internal differentiation. In economic geography: the geography of the population, the agricultural industry, transport, the service sector and services. Today, geography has evolved from descriptive and cognitive science into a constructive science.

In modern geography, various methods of geographical research are known. The most popular are traditional geographical research methods:

I. Traditional methods -

a) descriptive -the study and description of any territory is carried out according to a certain plan. The description can be both singleton (when only one component is considered, for example, a hydrological network, relief, landscapes), and complex (when the territorial complex is fully considered: nature - population - economy).

b) comparative   - When studying various territories and geographical objects, comparative analysis is often used. The objects of study can be located close to each other (for example, the coasts of the Black and Azov seas) or be removed (for example, mountain systems of the Cenozoic folding regions of South America and Europe) and similar features are analyzed. As a result, elements of similarity and difference are highlighted and conclusions are drawn.

c) cartographic - special maps or series of thematic maps are created for the study area in order to cognize any phenomenon. With the help of predetermined certain conventional signs, certain elements of the territory in question (relief, climate elements, landscapes, etc.) are applied to the cartographic basis. The cartographic method is usually used with other research methods: decryption of aerial photographs, mathematical, etc.

d) retrospective (historical approach).   The study of a geographical object, territory: its landscapes, its individual components, natural and social phenomena is considered in time, which allows us to make a forecast for the future.

e) typological -   According to the selected criteria, reference areas (key) are identified in the study area in order to further disseminate the findings to other sites.

II.Modern methods of geographical research:

a) Geographic forecast   - prediction of the future state of geosystems. b) Geoinformatics.   We live in an era of “information explosion”, when the volume of scientific knowledge and the number of sources of information are growing very rapidly. Computer science allows the use of economic and mathematical modeling. The development of geoinformatics led to the creation of GeoInformation Systems (GIS).   GIS is an information system that provides for the collection, storage, processing, analysis and display of spatial data and related non-spatial data, as well as obtaining information and knowledge about geographical space based on them.

It is believed that geographic or spatial data make up more than half of all circulating information used by organizations involved in various types of activities, which require consideration of the spatial distribution of objects. GIS is focused on providing the possibility of making optimal management decisions based on spatial data analysis.

The introduction of GIS technology in geography has affected many industries, and especially pictography. (Example: global electronic maps have already been created, differing in character and language. National electronic atlases: USA, Canada, Japan, Sweden, China, etc.)

c) Space research methods   of our planet, these are climatic and space resources - the resources of the future.

Types of Geographic Information

Geographical information (GI) includes any information related to objects, phenomena and processes localized in geographic space. A significant proportion of geographic information is located in sources that are not maps. Examples are addresses in phone books, kilometer signs in incident reports, place names in a geographic directory, and Internet portals. The completeness of the information presented on cartographic works is determined by the combination of map sheets with relatively simple topics - thematic cartographic layers attached to a single base map. For the image of various objects there is a special system of geographical symbols. Consider the most used:
Linear signs   - borders, roads, rivers, etc. . Contours   - connection of points with the same parameters (isobars - atmospheric pressure, isotherms t 0 air) Areas   - areas of distribution of certain phenomena. Traffic signs   - these are traffic flows, sea currents, winds, etc. Quality background   - used to display national and religious composition (without quantitative indicators) Cartogram   - different intensity of phenomena within the territorial units. Chart diagram   - a map with a certain territorial division and diagram figures corresponding to these divisions. Chart map   - a schematic map that does not have an exact basis (map of travel routes, etc.) Data for compiling maps is currently being received via satellites. Thus, there is a real opportunity to present geographical information of any volume and complexity, and the role of GI is huge for people's lives. This is the most accurate and quick obtaining information about the weather forecast, the degree of development of various extreme events, as well as obtaining special information, for example, the thickness of the snow cover (this is important for agriculture), the degree of coverage of cereal crops with pests, the degree of aridity of the region, the degree of deforestation plantations, etc.

Sources of geographic information.

1. Maps, atlases, topographic plans.

2. Geographic descriptions of different territories.

3. Encyclopedias, reference books, statistical materials, etc.

4. Space and aerial photographs.

5. Geoinformation systems (GIS). Currently, all of these sources of information can be digitized and converted from paper to electronic form, an example of a GIS.

A geographic map is a special source of information about reality.

General geographicmaps display various elements of the earth's surface - relief, vegetation, rivers, settlements, transport network, etc.

Thematicmaps characterize geographical objects and phenomena on a specific topic: vegetation, relief, industry.

For example, a political map will first of all give an idea of \u200b\u200bthe location of countries, their borders, etc.

Homework:

1. Show on the contour map parts of the world and continents.

2. Indicate the role of economic and social geography as a science, its place in the system of geographical sciences.

3. Identify the types of geographical information, its role and use in people's lives.

4. Geoinformation systems as a means of obtaining, processing and presenting spatially-coordinated geographical data.

5. Examine the geographical map as a special source of information about reality and statistical materials. Explore the features of the legend (legend) on the political map of the world. Indicate other ways and forms of obtaining geographical information: the use of satellite images, modeling.

Independent work

Lesson number 2 A political map of the World

Study Questions

1. Countries on the modern political map of the world. Their grouping by the area of \u200b\u200bthe territory, by population, elements of the political map of the world.

2. Quantitative and qualitative changes on the world map.

3. The main periods of formation of the political map of the world.

4. Typology of the countries of the world. Political system. Forms of government.

A political map of the world is a geographical map reflecting countriesof the world , andform of government   andgovernment structure .   The political map of the world reflects the main political and geographical changes: the formation of new independent states, the change in their status, the merger and separation of states, the loss or acquisition of sovereignty, the change in the area of \u200b\u200bstates, the replacement of their capitals, the change in the name of states and capitals, the change in the form of government and state devices. The political map of the world has characteristic elements by which it can be determined, it is

· State borders

· State territories

· Territories with an international regime

· Mixed territories

· Sovereign states

· Non-Self-Governing Territories

· Forms of government

What is customary to denote in economic geography of the world by the terms: State, Country, Territory? The concept of the state primarily means the political system of power established in a certain territory, while the concept of a country is more likely to refer to cultural, general geographical (community of territory) and other factors. The concept of a country is less formal than the concept of a state. Territory or trust Territories   - Dependent territories included as a result of World War II in the UN International Guardianship System. These are mainly colonies of Germany and its allies, in Africa (Cameroon, Rwanda, Burundi, Somalia, Tanzania, South-West Africa) and islands in the Pacific Ocean (Western Samoa, Nauru, New Guinea, Mariana, Marshalls and Caroline) with a population about 20 million people. Management of them, by agreement with the UN and under the control of its Trusteeship Council, was given to the former colonial powers - Great Britain, Belgium, France. By 1997, almost all territories had become independent states. Before modern states formed on the planet, there was a long period of formation of the political map of the world.

The main periods of the formation of the political map of the world

1. The ancient period (before the V century A.D.)

2. The medieval period (V-XV centuries)

3. The new period (the turn of the XV-XVI centuries - 1914)

4. The latest period (from 1914 to the present)

· The first stage (from 1914 to 1945)

The second stage (1945-1990)

· The third stage (from 1990 to the present)

According to various sources (November 2015), there are 230 territories in the world, including:

193 independent states (recognized by the UN)

14 unrecognized states

3 territories with undefined status

1 quasi-state entity the Order of Malta - has observer status at the UN.)

62 dependent territories

The process of the birth and disappearance of states is endless; this process is called change on the political map of the world. There are changes on the political map quantitative   (accession of newly discovered lands to the state, territorial gains and losses after wars, the unification or collapse of states, the exchange of land by states, etc.) and quality(the acquisition of sovereignty, a change in the form of government and state structure, the formation of interstate unions, etc.). Currently, quantitative changes are declining and mainly qualitative changes are taking place on the political map of the world.

Currently, taking into account the level and nature of socio-economic and political development, there are the following groups of countries:
The countries of the world are grouped according to different signs. . For example, sovereign, independent countries and dependent countries and territories are distinguished. Dependent countries and territories may have different names: possessions - the term "colonies" has not been used since 1971 (there are very few of them left), overseas departments and territories, self-governing territories. So, Gibraltar is a possession of the UK; Guiana in South America - Department of France; the island country of Puerto Rico has been declared a "free state to join the United States."

Grouping of countries by size of territory:

VERY BIG COUNTRIES:   (territory of more than 3 million square kilometers): Russia (17.1 million square kilometers), Canada (10 million square kilometers), China (9.6 million square kilometers), USA (9.4 million square kilometers), Brazil (8.5 million square kilometers), Australia (7.7 million square kilometers), India (3.3 million square kilometers)

MICRO-STATES:   Andorra, Liechtenstein, Monaco, San Marino, Vatican. These include Singapore and the island states of the Caribbean and Oceania.

COUNTRIES BY POPULATION:

According to the population, 10 major countries of the world are distinguished: China (1318 million people), India (1132 million people), USA (302 million people), Indonesia (232 million people), Brazil (189 million people). people), Pakistan (169 million people), Bangladesh (149 million people), Russia (146 million people from the Crimea river Nigeria (144 million people), Japan (128 million people) (data for 2014-2015)

SMALLEST BY NUMBER OF POPULATION   - microstates. In the Vatican, for example, 1 thousand people live.

ECONOMICALLY HIGHLY DEVELOPED STATESA   differ in a mature level of development of market relations. Their role in world politics and economics is great; they have powerful scientific and technical potential. They differ from each other in the scale and level of economic development, and in population size. USA, UK, Japan, etc.

POOR COUNTRIES   - Basically, former colonies, which, having received political independence, fell into economic dependence on their former metropolises. This is the majority of sub-Saharan Africa, countries such as Angola, Ghana, Zambia, as well as Asian countries Afghanistan, Bangladesh and others. They are very far behind the developed world in all major socio-economic indicators. (see the list at the end of the topic)

State forms of government.

The form of government characterizes the organization of state power, the system of higher state bodies. There are two forms of government: republican and monarchical republic –   a form of government, in which the highest legislative power belongs to the elected representative body of the parliament, and the executive to the government. Republics are divided into parliamentary and presidential. IN presidential   In the republics, the president is vested with very great rights, he himself leads the government. (USA, Iran, Argentina, etc.) IN parliamentary   the main figure is the head of government. (Germany, Italy, Israel, etc.) Monarchical form of government   - power under which the head of state is the monarch. This supreme power is inherited. Monarchies are divided into absolute, constitutional, theocratic .

Absolute monarchy - the power of the monarch is practically unlimited (Bhutan, Oman, UAE, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, etc.)

Theocratic monarchy   - the monarch simultaneously represents secular and spiritual authority. (Vatican, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain).

A constitutional monarchy - The power of the monarch is limited to parliament. On a modern political map, 30 countries of the world have a monarchical form of government.

Forms of the administrative-territorial structure

Countries are subdivided on unitary   (in which there is a single legislative and executive branch in the country ). Federated   - in which, along with uniform laws, there are separate self-governing territorial units having their own legislative, executive and judicial authorities.

Homework:

1. Give a brief description of the state (of your choice in any form).

2. Using reference materials, maps, fill out the table, noting the country

world with a federal administrative-territorial structure. Explain what

the distinction is made between unitary and federal forms of administrative

territorial structure.

Lesson number 3

Topic: Typology of the countries of the world. Political system. Forms of government.

Study Questions

1. The differences between the countries of the modern world in terms of the size of the territory, population, features of the population, and features of the geographical location.

2.Types of countries. Economically developed and developing countries (major; highly developed countries of Western Europe; countries of resettlement type; key countries; countries of external oriented development; new industrial countries and other groups).

3. The UN and its main structural units

The political map of the world is represented by individual countries and regions. For a complete study of the country, it is customary to consider it from different points of view: by the size of the territory, geographical location, the nature of the social system, the level of socio-economic development, historical and geographical areas, etc. To rank countries for socio-economic development, GDP is used.   Gross domestic product - one of the great inventions of the twentieth century., Almost equal in value to the car. GDP is the sum of all goods produced in the territory of a given country for the year, and GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT (GNP) is the volume of goods produced according to the national principle: GDP minus the profits of foreign companies transferred abroad and the wages of foreign workers, plus similar income from abroad. Different countries use different methods of calculating GDP and GNP, so the data provided by national statistics and international are almost always different.To enable cross-country comparisons, international statistics on GDP is given in a single monetary dimension - US dollars.   They are calculated by UN experts using special techniques - at official exchange rates or at purchasing power parity currencies. Therefore, these data, depending on the calculation method, are significantly different from each other.

There is a classification adopted by the UN - the division of the countries of the world into "industrialized", "developing" and countries with a "centrally planned economy."But at the same time, this division unites extremely different countries into one group. Obviously, such countries as, for example, the United States and Switzerland, classified as economically developed countries, or Kuwait and Papua New Guinea (falling into the group of developing countries) have, of course, similarities, but even more differences between them. The group of industrialized countries includes about 30 states. They are distinguished by a high level of economic development, the predominance of manufacturing industries and services in GDP, high quality and living standards of the population. In these countries, the bulk of global industrial production is being created. They account for more than 70% of the global foreign trade turnover, including about 90% of the export of machinery and equipment.

Economically developed countries include approximately 60 countries in Europe, Asia, North America, Australia and Oceania. All of them are characterized by a higher level of economic and social development and, accordingly, GDP per capita. However, this group of countries is characterized by rather significant internal heterogeneity and four subgroups can be distinguished in its composition.

G7 countries "Big Seven" (GDP per capita of 20-30 thousand dollars) - Japan, USA, Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy, Canada.

Privileged highly developed countries of Western Europe: Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, Sweden, Norway, etc.
The countries of "resettlement" capitalism: Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Israel.

Nafta Countries   USA, Canada, Mexico.

The "IMF" in the number of developed countries includes Western Europe, including the EU. EU unification causes a lot of controversy, the second and third wave of countries joining the EU gives rise to many doubts. Simply put, all countries that are members of the European Union, although they are independent, are subject to the same rules: they have the same rules for training, medical care, the pension system, the judicial system, etc. In a word, the laws of the European Union are valid in all countries of the European Union.

For 2013: there are 28 countries in the European Union.

• Austria (1995)
• Belgium (1957)
• Bulgaria (2007)
• Great Britain (1973)
• Hungary (2004)
• Germany (1957)
• Greece (1981)
• Denmark (1973)
• Ireland (1973)
• Spain (1986)
• Italy (1957)
• Cyprus (2004)
• Latvia (2004)
• Lithuania (2004)
• Luxembourg (1957)
• Malta (2004)
• Netherlands (1957)
• Poland (2004)
• Slovakia (2004)
• Slovenia (2004)
• Portugal (1986)
• Romania (2007)
• Finland (1995)
• France (1957)
• Croatia (2013)
• Czech Republic (2004)
• Sweden (1995)
• Estonia (2004)

Candidates Iceland

• Macedonia
• Serbia
• Turkey
• Montenegro

All of them are members of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).

The group of developing countries includes   the largest number of states in the world (about 150). These countries are extremely different - this group includes Brazil and Tuvalu, India and South Korea, Somalia and Burkina Faso, etc. However, all of them share such common features of socio-economic development as the colonial past, which predetermined the territorial structure and mainly agrarian commodity specialization of the economy.

Features of participation in the international division of labor; unequal position in the world economy, dependence on foreign capital; huge external debt; the presence of acute problems - demographic, environmental and food, as well as low living standards of most of the population and others. Nevertheless, among the developing countries there are countries and territories, in terms of socio-economic development, already close to the level of industrialized ones. Consider in detail large economic associations:

1. Countries in Transition (Post-Socialist)   and socialist countries. This group includes the countries of the Center, and East. Europe (including all republics of the former USSR) and Mongolia are “countries with economies in transition”; as well as socialist countries - Cuba, China,

2. Key countries: Mexico, Argentina, India, China, Brazil
  3. " Newly Industrialized Countries or Yellow Tigers: Singapore, Taiwan and the Republic of Korea, as well as the NIS “second wave” - Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Hong Kong, Taiwan. Their economic indicators mainly correspond to those of industrialized countries, but there are also features inherent in all developing countries.
  4. " Oil Exporting Countries» or OPEC (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE Algeria, Venezuela, Gabon, Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Qatar, Libya, Nigeria, Ecuador)

5. BRICS countries Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa.

6. SCO Shanghai Cooperation Organization

SCO member countries

Kazakhstan

Kyrgyzstan

Tajikistan

Uzbekistan

Poor countries   - Basically, former colonies, which, having received political independence, fell into economic dependence on their former metropolises. This is the majority of sub-Saharan Africa, countries such as Angola, Ghana, Zambia. As well as Asian countries, Afghanistan, Bangladesh and others. They are very far behind the developed world in all major socio-economic indicators.

Poor country per capita GDP (2015 data)

1 Malawi $ 226.50

2 Burundi $ 267.10

3 Central African Republic $ 333.20

4 niger $ 415.40

5 Liberia $ 454.30

6 Madagascar $ 463.00

7 Congo $ 484.20

8 Gambia $ 488.60

9 Ethiopia $ 505.00

10 Guinea $ 523.10

UN structure.

For independent study:

Typology of the countries of the world:

“Typology of countries - the allocation of groups of countries of the world similar in level, nature and type of socio-economic and historical development.

The first step in any typology is classification of countries according to a set of demographic, economic, social and other development indicators.

Second phase   identification of typological features of countries with a similar level of development and their grouping. Typologies of developing countries are widely known: B. M. Bolotin, V. L. Sheinis, V. V. Velsky, Y. G. Mashbits and other geographers and economists http: //rgo.ru/geography/econom_geography/slovar/tipols1.

Country, state - the main object of the political map of the world.   The total number of countries on this map during the 20th century. noticeably increased. At first, as a result of changes related to the outcome of the First World War. Secondly,   as a result of the changes that followed the Second World War, expressed in the collapse of the colonial system of imperialism, when during 1945-1993. 102 countries achieved political independence. Thirdly, at the beginning of the 90s. as a result of the collapse of the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia. On a modern political map, there are about 230 countries. This quantitative growth is followed by important qualitative shifts. This is manifested in the fact that out of 230 states, 193 are sovereign states. The rest falls on the so-called non-self-governing territories.

With such a large number of countries, there is a need for their grouping, which is carried out primarily on the basis of different quantitative criteria. The most common grouping of countries is the size of their territory and population. Often a grouping of countries according to the peculiarities of their geographical location is applied. 1. The grouping of countries by the size of the territory is the largest countries (territory of more than 3 million km 2). These include states of different regions. Half of the participants were dozens, delegated by the New World, four countries are located in Eurasia, one in Africa. Moreover, only Russia can be considered a European country. 2. Grouping by the prevalence of means of communication. The most widely spoken language in the largest countries of the world is English. It is spoken in the USA, Canada, Australia and a little in India. In Russia and Kazakhstan, the Russian language is widely used. The ten are dominated by multinational countries. The country with the most diverse ethnic composition is India. Over 500 peoples, nationalities and tribes live here. Many ethnic groups live in Sudan, Russia, Canada, Kazakhstan, China, the USA. But the population of Argentina, Brazil and Australia mainly belongs to the same ethnic group. 2. Grouping by state system, form of government and administrative-territorial structure of the countries of the world. The countries of the world also differ in forms of government and in the forms of territorial-state structure. Allocate two main forms Board: a republic where legislative power is usually vested in parliament and executive in government. Another form is the monarchy, where power belongs to the monarch and is inherited. Most countries of the world have a republican form of government. In the republics, the highest state power belongs to an elected representative body; the head of state is elected by the population of the country. Presidential republics are distinguished, where the president leads the government and has great powers (USA, Guinea, Argentina, etc.) and parliamentary republics, where the role of the president is less and the prime minister appointed by the president is the head of the executive branch. There are currently 30 monarchies. Among the monarchies, constitutional and absolute are distinguished. Under a constitutional monarchy, the power of the monarch is limited by the constitution and activities of parliament: the real legislative power usually belongs to the parliament, and the executive to the government. The monarch thus “reigns, but does not rule”, although his political influence is quite large. Such monarchies include Great Britain, the Netherlands, Spain, Japan, etc. With an absolute monarchy, the power of the ruler is unlimited. There are only six states with such a form of government in the world: Brunei, Qatar, Oman, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Vatican. The so-called theocratic monarchies, that is, the countries where the head of state is at the same time his religious head (Vatican and Saudi Arabia), are especially distinguished. There are countries that have a specific form of government. These include states that are members of the so-called Commonwealth (until 1947 it was called the "British Commonwealth of Nations"). The Commonwealth is a union of countries, which includes the United Kingdom and many of its former colonies, dominions and dependent territories (50 states in total). It was originally created by Great Britain to preserve its economic and military-political positions in previously owned territories and countries. In the 16 countries of the Commonwealth, the British Queen is formally considered the head of state. "The largest of them are Canada, Australia, New Zealand. The head of state is the Queen of Great Britain, represented by the Governor General, and the legislature is Parliament. 3. According to the form of government distinguish between unitary and federal countries.In a unitary state there is a single constitution, a single executive and legislative power, and administrative-territorial units are endowed with insignificant gender dip and report directly to the central government (France, Hungary). In a federal state, along with uniform laws and authorities, there are other state formations - republics, states, provinces, etc., in which their own laws are adopted, have their own authorities, that is, members of the federation have a certain political and economic independence. But their activities should not contradict federal laws (India, Russia, USA). Most countries of the world are unitary, there are just over 20 federal states in the world. The federal form of the state is characteristic of both multinational (Pakistan, Russia) countries and countries with a relatively homogeneous national composition of the population (Germany). 4. By world population by population, China, India, USA, Indonesia, Brazil, and Pakistan Russia.

4. By geographic location.

Seaside countries;

Peninsular

Island;

Archipelagic countries;

Countries occupying an intracontinental position. In other words, when grouping countries by geographic location, they usually distinguish landlocked countries (Chad, Mongolia, Kyrgyzstan, Slovakia, etc. - only 42 countries in the world) and coastal (India, Colombia). Among the coastal distinctions are distinguished island (Sri Lanka), peninsular (Spain) and archipelagic countries (Japan, Indonesia) ”about the grouping of countries into subgroups and by role with the global economy.

Until the early 90's. All countries of the world were divided into three types: socialist, developed capitalist and developing. After the actual collapse of the world socialist system, others have replaced this typology. One of them, also three-membered, subdivides all countries of the world into economically developed, developing and countries with economies in transition, i.e. carrying out the transition from a centrally planned to a market economy. A two-member typology is widely used with the division of all countries into economically developed and developing ones. The main criterion for this typology is the level of socio-economic development of the state, expressed in terms of gross domestic product per capita.

Lesson number 4

Test

Questions for preparation:

1. What is customary to denote in economic geography of the world by the terms: State, Country, Territory?

2. Countries on the modern political map of the world.

3. To navigate and know the main periods of the formation of the political map of the world

4. Know the number of countries on the political map of the world.

5.Quantitative and qualitative changes on the world map.

6. Grouping of countries according to various characteristics and characteristics.

7. Typology of the countries of the world. Political system. Forms of government.

8. Forms of the administrative-territorial structure

9. Historical and geographical regions of the world

10. Understand the acronym GDP and NVP

11. Ability to find economically developed countries on the map.

12. Know the member states of the European Union

13. To know the member states of the Political Club G7, the privileged highly developed countries of Western Europe, the countries of "resettlement" capitalism,

To study the nature of continents and oceans, geographers use general geographic   and industry methods research.

One of the main research methods in geography are observation   and measurement,   thanks to which they collect primary geographic information   about the features of continents and oceans. Direct observations and necessary measurements are carried out during expeditions, being directly at the object under study, for example, at a scientific station in Antarctica. Often they are carried out from research ships or even cruise ships, from the orbits of space stations and geophysical rockets, from artificial Earth satellites and laboratory aircraft (Fig. 4).

Space observations have enriched geographic science with new knowledge. During observations of the ocean near Antarctica, ocean vortices with a diameter of 30 to 200 km were first noticed by satellite and determined that they were similar to atmospheric cyclones and anticyclones. Using satellites, the movements of lithospheric plates were recorded, reaching approximately 10 cm per year. Thanks to the examination of the ocean floor by space flight vehicles, we discovered differences in the relief of the ocean floor compared to the land surface and created corresponding maps.

Based on the obtained primary geographical information, models or models (Fig. 5), landforms, cyclones and anti-cyclones, rivers with a dam and a reservoir, natural complexes, etc. are created, various maps are developed.

In geography, there are also methods of obtaining secondary geographic information.   This is due to the fact that many geographic objects are inaccessible for direct observation or have very large sizes. Then, research scientists resort to the use of previously obtained and ordered data.

Scientists accumulate secondary geographic information gradually. Sources of information for them are maps, especially thematic ones, analyzing   which can compare   phenomena create an image   specific territory (Fig. 5). Ordered geographical information is also provided tables   combining the diverse characteristics of the territory. An example of such a table is the geochronological scale. The source of secondary geographic information is graphs, charts, profiles.(Remember what kind of graphs the temperature changes, wind rose, climate diagrams, relief profiles.)

An important method of obtaining secondary information in geography also remains descriptions   especially when it comes to the nature characteristics of individual continents, countries, mysterious seas and islands. Nowadays, the function of description is also performed by various video media - cinema and television.

A new source of secondary geographic information is geographic information system (GIS),   intended for computer reading, analysis and presentation of information.   Material from the site

GIS is fast. In GIS, there is a certain set of programs that help to quickly (in 3-5 minutes) create any geographical map. At the same time, the necessary data is entered, and their analysis is carried out automatically. And when working with atlas maps, when it is necessary to detect a certain relationship, for example, between the topography and the structure of the earth’s crust, the time is used five times more, because you need different-sized maps located on different pages.